This thesis analyzes the contemporary case law of European courts regarding Community trade mark. The thesis is composed of five chapters. First chapter characterizes Community trade mark as a legal instrument of the law of the European Union. Second chapter analyzes relevant sources of law. Third chapter deals with institutions that are crucial mainly for the registration and protection of Community trade marks. Then the fourth chapter describes the registration process before the Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market. First part of this chapter focuses on the formalities of an application of the Community trade mark filed at the Office. Second part is concerned with the right of priority. Third part looks at absolute grounds for refusal of an application. Fourth part refers to relative grounds for refusal. Finally, the fifth part describes the grounds for revocation of the rights of the Community trade mark. At last the fifth chapter examines the contemporary legal background of the system of protecting the rights of proprietors of Community trade marks. The results of this thesis shows that the current legislation and the case law of European courts contribute to the functioning of the common market and mainly to free movement of goods by reasonable determination of limits for...

Tarptautinio arbitražo atveju susiduriama su arbitražo sprendimo pripažinimo procedūra ne jo priėmimo valstybėje. Svarbiausias tarptautinis instrumentas, reglamentuojantis užsienio arbitražų sprendimų pripažinimo tvarką, yra 1958 m. Niujorko konvencija dėl užsienio arbitražų sprendimų pripažinimo ir vykdymo. Pagal 1958 m. Niujorko konvenciją funkcija pripažinti užsienio arbitražų sprendimus valstybėse paprastai priskiriama konkrečiam nacionaliniam teismui arba teismams. Pripažinimo klausimas sprendžiamas vadovaujantis Niujorko konvencijos V straipsnyje įtvirtintais atsisakymo pripažinti užsienio arbitražo sprendimą pagrindais. Siekiant efektyvaus ir vieningo pripažinimo mechanizmo veikimo, stengiamasi vienodinti nacionalines teisės normas Susitariančiose šalyse. Prie šio siekio svarbia dalimi prisidėjo 1985 metais Jungtinių Tautų Tarptautinės prekybos teisės komisijos (UNCITRAL) priimtas Tarptautinio komercinio arbitražo pavyzdinis įstatymas, kurio paskirtis – būti orientyru valstybėms priimant nacionalinius aktus šiuo klausimu. Jame, be kita ko, integruotos ir nuostatos dėl užsienio arbitražo sprendimų pripažinimo, parengtos vadovaujantis Niujorko konvencija. Ne mažiau svarbus ir vieningos teismų praktikos pripažįstant užsienio arbitražų sprendimus veiksnys. Tai kaip teismai taiko ir aiškina Niujorko konvenciją padeda įvertinti jos nuostatų efektyvumą, nustatyti ar tinkamai parengta nacionalinė teisinė bazė, reglamentuojanti užsienio arbitražų sprendimų pripažinimą. Šiuo... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / In a case of foreign arbitration it is inevitable to face the procedure of recognition of foreign arbitral award in a country where it was not enacted. 1958 New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards is the fundamental international instrument, which establishes the order of recognition of foreign arbitral awards. Pursuant to the 1958 New York Convention, the function to recognise foreign arbitral awards is attached to certain national court or courts. The question of recognition is solved following grounds on refusal to recognise foreign arbitral awards, which are set in the Article V of New York Convention. Due to the effective and united function of the recognition mechanism, it is endeavoured to uniform national law rules in the Contracting States. Contribution to this objective was added by 1985 UNCITRAL Model Law on Commercial Arbitration, adopted by United Nations Commission on International Trade Law. The mission of this Law is to be a guide for the states in establishing their national laws on the subject. The Model law, among other regulations, integrates the provisions on recognition of foreign arbitral awards, which are laid in accordance with New York Convention. Unanimous practice of courts also is a factor of significant importance. The way national courts apply and interpret New York Convention helps to evaluate the efficiency of its provisions, identify whether the national legal base regulating recognition of foreign... [to full text]

The Community Trade Mark in Comparison with the National Trade Mark - Focused on the Unitary Character of the Community Trade Mark and the Absolute Grounds of Refusal Abstract The Community Trade Mark system has existed since 1994 when the Community Trade Mark Regulation No. 40/94/EC was adopted. Even though the European system is younger than the national trade mark systems, one cannot say that it is a less successful system - particularly according to the number of registered Community Trademarks. The regulation of trademarks is very complex and for this reason I have decided to focus only on one part of the regulation, namely the unitary character, which represents a special characteristic of a Community Trade Mark - and further on the absolute grounds of refusal and their comparison in European and Czech trade mark law. The two systems for the registration of trademarks show considerable resemblance; however, one shall find differences, e.g. an integration of bad faith as one of the absolute grounds of refusal appearing only in the national system. The purpose of my thesis is to compare the two systems of trademarks - the Community level and the National level, and to provide readers with clear guidance regarding the general rules applicable within the registration. I will do this through an analysis...

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996) stipulates that every person has the right of access to information held by government. To give effect to this right, legislation in the form of the Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000 (Act 2 of 2000) was promulgated. This study explores the access to information regime that was established by die aforementioned legislation with specific reference to similar regimes in the United States of America, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Attention is also devoted to the prerequisites and potential obstacles associated with the implementation of the Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000. Based on the practices in other states, the conclusion was reached that the nature of information that may be requested in the South African context should be expanded, that cabinet records should only be excluded to the extent that disclosure thereof would be harmful, that frequently requested records should be made automatically available and that decision-making guidelines of government institutions should be published. As far as procedural requirements are concerned, it is proposed that information officers should acknowledge receipt of requests and that, where necessary, records should be translated to ensure that they are useful to a requester. It is further proposed that the wording of the ground of refusal regarding policy formulation and decision-making in government institutions be amended to take account of the consequences of disclosure. It is imperative that appeal and review mechanisms be accessible to members of the public and it is therefore proposed that an information commissioner be instituted to settle disputes in information related matters. Lastly it is proposed that sanctions be imposed against officials who deliberately undermine the public's right of access to information and that separate units be established in government institutions to deal exclusively with requests for access to information. / Public Administration / D. Litt. et Phil. (Public Administration)

1 Abstract Trademarks and their territorial limits The purpose of my thesis is to analyze the ways that are used for overcoming territorial limits of trademarks, to point out the pros and cons of these methods. Likewise, I'd like to point out the fact that the various systems of trademarks - national and international systems and system of Community trade mark are interconnected and they complete each other. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on the quality of national legislation, to match the European Union standards and international standards, as well. I chose this topic, because the issue of trademarks is in my opinion very interesting, I like the fact that they can connect designers and businessmen, I am fascinated by their overlap into the art sphere, too. The topic of marks is very broad and quite specific, for understandable reasons it cannot be given so much time within the subjects taught at the Faculty. Also this was one of the reasons I chose this topic. My work is divided into six major thematic units, together there are 25 chapters, some of them are further divided into subchapters and sections. In the first part, which corresponds to the first and the second chapter, I try to out the trademarks as an institution in a wider context of intellectual property rights and industrial property...

Varumärkesrätten innefattar en bred definition av vilka kännetecken som kan konstituera ett varumärke, vilken inkluderar formen på en vara. När kännetecknet består av en varuform utgör således varan i sig kännetecknet och därmed varumärket. Vid en varumärkesregistrering ska bedömningen av olika kategorier av kännetecken inte skilja sig åt, men för varuformer finns ytterligare hinder vid registrering jämfört med andra typer av kännetecken. Ett sådant registreringshinder avser specifikt funktionella former. Många former tenderar att vara funktionella till viss grad, vilket aktualiserar art. 7.1 e) ii) VmF. Artikeln föreskriver ett absolut registreringshinder mot att registerna former som endast består av ”en varas form eller annan egenskap hos varan som krävs för att uppnå ett tekniskt resultat”. Om en varuform hindras registrering enligt artikeln, är uteslutningen från registrering permanent. Det innebär att registreringshindret inte kan övervinnas även om formen förvärvar särskiljningsförmåga på marknaden. EUD har uttalat att det inte vore skäligt att neka registrering av varuformer endast på grund av att de innehar några funktionella element. För att ett kännetecken ska falla inom ramen för artikeln behöver således en forms alla väsentliga särdrag falla inom ramen för bestämmelsen. Detta medför viss problematik när det kommer till hybridkännetecken vilka innehar vissa element som är funktionella, men även andra element som är icke-funktionella. Enligt gällande rätt kan hybridkännetecken registreras som varumärken om de innehar icke-funktionella särdrag som anses vara väsentliga. Hela formen av ett hybridkännetecken kan således registreras som ett varumärke under förutsättning att endast några av de väsentliga särdragen krävs för att uppnå den tekniska funktionen. Genom en undersökning av rättspraxis konstateras att EUD utför en fri och långtgående undersökning vid bedömning av vad som utgör en forms väsentliga särdrag och dessa särdrags eventuella funktion. EUD är inte bunden till vad som anges i varumärkesansökan, utan undersöker även den faktiska varan på marknaden för vilket kännetecknet är ämnat att användas. EUD verkar generellt vara restriktiv med att låta tredimensionella former registreras, inte minst när de innehåller funktionella element. Möjligen beror den negativa inställningen till att registrera hybridkännetecken på bristen av effektiva lösningar att tydligt undanta de funktionella elementen från registrering. Vid en registrering av hybridkännetecken uppstår även intressanta aspekter ur intrångssynpunkt eftersom formen är registrerad som en helhet, även om vissa väsentliga särdrag inte är ämnade att omfattas av ensamrätten. Vid analoga tillämpningar av rättspraxis framstår det som att dessa element, utan att det explicit framgår av exempelvis en disclaimer, ska vara undantagna från den ensamrätt som erhålls varumärkesinnehavaren. / The trade mark law includes a very broad definition of signs that can constitute a trade mark, which includes the shape of a product. When a sign consists of the shape of a product, the product itself becomes the sign and thus the trade mark. In the case of a trade mark registration, the assessment should not differ between different categories of signs. However, when it comes to registration for signs consisting of the shape of a product, there are further obstacles to overcome before protection can be granted compared to other types of signs. Many shapes tend to be functional to some extent, which brings relevance to the absolute ground for refusal found in art. 7.1 e) ii) EUTMR. The article prohibits registration of signs which consist exclusively of “the shape, or another characteristic, of goods which is necessary to obtain a technical result”. If the registration of a sign is prohibited by the article, the exclusion from registration is permanent. This means that the ground for refusal cannot be overcome even if the sign acquires distinctiveness on the market. The CJEU has stated that it would not be reasonable to deny a shape registration only on the sole ground that it has some functional elements. Therefore, in order for a sign to fall within the scope of the article, all the essential characteristics of a shape must fall within the scope of the provision. This causes certain difficulties when it comes to hybrid signs, which possess some elements that are functional, but also other elements that are non-functional. Under current law, hybrid signs can be registered as trade marks if the non-functional elements are considered as essential. The entire form of a hybrid sign can thus be registered as a trade mark only if some, but not all, essential characteristics are required to achieve the technical function. By examining case law, it can be stated that the CJEU carry out a free and extensive examination when assessing what constitutes the essential characteristics of a shape and the possible function of these elements. The CJEU is not bound to the trade mark application but also examines the actual goods for which the sign is intended to be used. The CJEU generally seems to be restrictive in allowing registration for three-dimensional shapes, especially in regard to those incorporating functional elements. This might be the case since there is no good way to clearly exclude the functional elements from the registration. However, when registering a hybrid sign, interesting aspects also arise from the infringement point of view since the shape is registered as a whole but contains certain essential features, which are not intended to be covered by the exclusive right granted. In analogous applications of case law, it appears that these elements, without being explicitly stated in e.g. a disclaimer, must be excluded from the exclusive right granted to the proprietor.

Teisės kreiptis į teismą teisminės gynybos užtikrinimas yra vienas iš pagrindinių teisinės valstybės statusą patvirtinančių siekiamų tikslų. Magistro darbe teisė kreiptis į teismą teisminės gynybos procesine teisine prasme, t. y. teisė pareikšti ieškinį (pareiškimą), analizuojama pasitelkiant lyginamąjį tyrimo metodą, įgalinantį palyginti atskirų valstybių - Lietuvos Respublikos (toliau – Lietuvos) ir Vokietijos Federacinės Respublikos (toliau –Vokietijos) - teisės kreiptis į teismą įgyvendinimo procesinės tvarkos teisinį reguliavimą. Abejose šalyse teisė kreiptis į teismą teisminės gynybos reglamentuojama aukščiausią teisinę galią turinčio teisės akto, t. y. Konstitucijos, normomis. Teisės kreiptis į teismą teisinis reguliavimas, esant asmens teisių pažeidimui privatiniuose teisiniuose santykiuose, Lietuvoje ir Vokietijoje skiriasi: Vokietijos Pagrindinio įstatymo 19 str. 4 d. garantuoja teisę kreiptis į teism���� tik tuo atveju, kai teisių pažeidėjas yra viešoji valdžia. Tačiau Vokietijos Konstitucinis Teismas yra konstatavęs, jog teisiniams ginčams, nepatenkantiems į Pagrindinio įstatymo 19 str. 4 d. ribas, teisė kreiptis į teismą garantuojama įtvirtintu teisinės valstybės principu. Priešingai nei Vokietijoje, Lietuvos Konstitucijoje yra įtvirtinta bendroji teisės norma, taikoma kilusiems ginčams tiek civiliniuose, tiek kitokio pobūdžio teisiniuose santykiuose. Kiekvienas, norintis pasinaudoti teisės aktuose įtvirtinta teise kreiptis į teismą, privalo laikytis... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Die Gewaehrleistung vom Justizgewaehrungsanspruch ist eines der Axiome, die den Status von dem Rechtsstaat betont. In dieser Magisterarbeit wird der Justizgewaehrungsanspruch im Sinne des prozessrechtlichen Aspektes, d. h. wie das Recht vor Gericht einzuklagen, analysiert. Die Eroerterung vom Justizgewaehrungsanspruch wird mit Anwendung eines Vergleichsmethodes erledigt. Das Ziel dieser Magisterarbeit ist die Prozessordnung der Verwirklichung vom Justizgewaehrungsanspruch in Litauen und in Deutschland zu vergleichen. In beiden Laendern wird der Justizgewaehrungsanspruch auf der obersten Regelungsebene verankert – im Grundgesetz (GG) der Bundesrepublik Deutschlands und in der Verfassung Litauens. Die Rechtsschutzgarantie in privatrechtlichen Verhaeltnissen ist in verfassungrechtlichen Normen unterschiedlich geregelt: Art. 19 Abs.4 GG schuetzt die Rechte des Menschens nur bei Velretzung durch oeffentliche Gewalt. Das Bundesverfassungsgericht hat den aus dem Rechtsstaatsprinzip in Verbindung mit den Grundrechten folgenden allgemeinen Justizgewährungsanspruch zunächst als Grundlage des Rechtsschutzes in zivilrechtlichen Streitigkeiten anerkannt, für die Art.19 Abs.4 GG nicht anwendbar ist. Im Gegensatz dazu gibt es eine allgemeine verfassungsrechtliche Norm in Verfassung Litauens, die nicht nur fuer die oeffenltich-rechtlichen, sondern auch fuer die zivilrechtlichen Streitigkeiten gilt. Jeder, wer sein Recht vor Gericht einzuklagen realisieren moechte, muss es gemaess... [to full text]

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996) stipulates that every person has the right of access to information held by government. To give effect to this right, legislation in the form of the Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000 (Act 2 of 2000) was promulgated. This study explores the access to information regime that was established by die aforementioned legislation with specific reference to similar regimes in the United States of America, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Attention is also devoted to the prerequisites and potential obstacles associated with the implementation of the Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000. Based on the practices in other states, the conclusion was reached that the nature of information that may be requested in the South African context should be expanded, that cabinet records should only be excluded to the extent that disclosure thereof would be harmful, that frequently requested records should be made automatically available and that decision-making guidelines of government institutions should be published. As far as procedural requirements are concerned, it is proposed that information officers should acknowledge receipt of requests and that, where necessary, records should be translated to ensure that they are useful to a requester. It is further proposed that the wording of the ground of refusal regarding policy formulation and decision-making in government institutions be amended to take account of the consequences of disclosure. It is imperative that appeal and review mechanisms be accessible to members of the public and it is therefore proposed that an information commissioner be instituted to settle disputes in information related matters. Lastly it is proposed that sanctions be imposed against officials who deliberately undermine the public's right of access to information and that separate units be established in government institutions to deal exclusively with requests for access to information. / Public Administration and Management / D. Litt. et Phil. (Public Administration)