To meet the goal of atmospheric stabilization of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) levels a technological transformation should occur in the energy sector. One strategy to achieve this is carbon sequestration. Carbon dioxide can be captured from industrial sources and sequestered underground into depleted oil and gas reservoirs. CO2 injected into geological formations, such as mature oil reservoirs can be effectively trapped by hydrodynamical (structural), solution, residual (capillary) and mineral trapping methods. In this work, a case study was conducted using CMG-STARS software for CO2 sequestration in a mature oil field. History matching was done with the available production, bottom hole pressures and water cut data to compare the results obtained from the simulator with the field data. Next, previously developed optimization methods were modified and used for the case of study. The main object of the optimization was to determine the optimal location, number of injection wells, injection rate, injection depth and pressure of wells to maximize the total trapped amount of CO2 while enhancing the amount of oil recovered. A second round of simulations was carried out to study the factors that affect the total oil recovery and CO2 &not / storage amount. These include relative permeability end points effect, hysteresis effect, fracture spacing and additives of simultaneous injection of carbon dioxide with CO and H2S. Optimization runs were carried out on a mildly heterogeneous 3D model for variety of cases. When compared with the base case, the optimized case led to an increase of 20% in the amount of oil that is recovered / and more than 95% of the injected CO2 was trapped as solution gas on and as an immobile gas. Finally, an investigation of the economical feasibility was accomplished. NPV values for various cases were obtained, selected and studied yielding in a number of cases that are found to be applicable for the field of concern.

L'étude des fluides géologiques passe par la description précise des propriétés thermodynamiques des systèmes eau - gaz sur de larges gammes de températures, pressions et compositions à partir d'équations d'état. Les équations d'état cubiques de type Van der Waals couramment utilisées telles que Soave Redlich Kwong (SRK) ou Peng Robinson permettent des calculs simples à mettre en oeuvre sur de larges gammes de températures et de pressions à partir des paramètres critiques des fluides étudiés. En revanche, la précision de ces modèles se dégrade lorsque l'eau devient un composant majeur du mélange puisque ni l'association par liaisons hydrogène ni les interactions dipolaires ne sont prises en compte dans ces modèles.<br />Sur le principe de la factorisation des fonctions de partition, l'énergie de Helmholtz d'un fluide peut être écrite sous la forme de la somme des différentes contributions énergétiques. Le modéle développé ici pour H2O et H2S considère trois contributions : celle du fluide de référence de type Van der Waals prise en compte par une équation cubique, celle de l'association par liaison hydrogène par un terme issu du modèle Cubic Plus Association (CPA) et celle des interactions dipolaires entre molécules non liées par la théorie Mean Spherical Approximation (MSA). Le modèle CPAMSA ainsi proposé est à six paramètres ajustables dont trois sont des grandeurs physiques compatibles avec leur estimation expérimentale.<br />Les propriétés thermodynamiques de l'eau pure sont ainsi sensiblement mieux reproduites qu'avec le modèle CPA le long de l'équilibre liquide - vapeur et les extrapolations à plus hautes températures et pressions sont satisfaisantes. De même, la prise en compte des interactions dipolaires dans la molécule H2S améliore significativement les calculs volumétriques effectués avec une équation d'état cubique simple.<br />Des règles de mélange simples entre molécules dipolaires ont été élaborées afin de modéliser le système binaire H2O - H2S par une approche symétrique. Les compositions des phases à l'équilibre liquide - vapeur sont reproduites avec des écarts moyens aux données expérimentales inférieurs à 7% tout comme pour les systèmes H2O - CO2 et H2O - CH4. Excepté pour ce dernier système, les paramètres d'interaction binaire ajustés sur les données expérimentales sont proches de zéro confirmant que le modèle proposé prend bien en compte les principales contributions énergétiques de ces fluides.

We have deposited bulk, monolayer and few-layers as well as large-scale 2D layered MoS2 thin films by pulsed DC magnetron sputtering from an MoS2 target. MoS2 has gained great attention lately, together with other layered Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDCs), for its unique optical and electrical properties with thickness-dependent bandgap. MoS2 also transitions from an indirect to a direct bandgap when thinned down to monolayer. This is intriguing in the fabrication of novel solar cells and photodetectors. Sputter-deposition has the advantage of producing large-scale, high-quality films, which is paramount for layered MoS2 to be applicable on an industrial level. The quality in terms of crystallinity and c⊥-texture of sputtered bulk MoS2 was evaluated as a function of several deposition process parameters: process pressure, substrate temperature and H2S-to-Ar ratio. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) results revealed that the high substrate temperature of 700 °C together with reactive H2S process gas improved the quality regardless of pressure. However, the quality was slightly improved further with increasing pressure up to 50 mTorr. We also found that the quality improved with increasing temperature up to 700 °C using pure Ar as the process gas. Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) analysis showed that with the addition of H2S the stoichiometry of MoSx improved from MoS1.78 using pure Ar to fully stoichiometric MoS2.01 at 40% H2S in the H2S/Ar mixture. Cross-sectional Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) imaging revealed the high-quality 2D layered structure of the MoS2 films and a maximum thickness of 5 nm of c⊥-growth MoS2 before the onset of the undesirable c∥-growth. These results provide a solution with respect to the ongoing challenge of obtaining high quality and good stoichiometry of sputtered TMDC films at elevated temperatures. Formation of monolayer and few-layers MoS2 was confirmed by Raman and Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. The peak separation of the E12g and A1g Raman-active modes for MoS2 monolayer was measured to 19.3 cm-1 on SiO2/Si, increases substantially in the transition to bilayer MoS2 and exhibits bulk values from four layers MoS2 and above. This result serves as a good indicator of monolayer as well as few-layers MoS2 formation. The monolayer film exhibits a strong photoluminescence peak at 1.88 eV owing to its direct optical bandgap, as compared to the indirect one of bilayer and thicker films. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) spectra of the monolayer MoSx film indicate successful sulfurization of the molybdenum atoms and absence of residual sulfur. XPS also showed ideal stoichiometric MoS2.03 ± 0.03 of the monolayer film. Furthermore, a uniform MoS2 monolayer was successfully grown on a 4" SiO2/Si wafer, demonstrating the large-scale uniformity that can be achieved by sputter-deposition, making it highly applicable on an industrial level.

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Le sulfure d’hydrogène (H2S) est un gaz malodorant, dangereux, et responsable de la corrosion du béton dans les canalisations d’eaux usées. Ce dernier phénomène est très coûteux pour les collectivités. Le composé H2S est généré sous forme soluble dans les zones anaérobies des réseaux d’assainissement (biofilms, sédiments, zones stagnantes ou conduites forcées) et est ensuite émis dans l’atmosphère des canalisations sous forme gazeuse dans les conduites gravitaires. Des modèles sont nécessaires pour améliorer la conception et la gestion des systèmes de collecte des eaux usées. L’objectif de cette thèse est de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de transfert d’H2S lors de l’écoulement gravitaire d’un liquide saturé en gaz dissous. Nous avons développé des techniques de mesure du coefficient de transfert à l’interface liquide-gaz pour le sulfure d’hydrogène et pour l’oxygène. L’influence des conditions hydrodynamiques (vitesse d’eau), aérauliques (vitesse d’air) et de la surface d’échange a été étudiée dans différentes géométries : une cuve agitée de 5 L et une canalisation de 10 mètres de longueur. Nous avons ainsi pu établir la forte influence de la vitesse d’eau sur le coefficient de transfert global. Cette approche expérimentale a été complétée par une approche de modélisation. En utilisant la mécanique des fluides numérique, nous avons essayé de comprendre l’évolution du coefficient de transfert à partir des fluctuations hydrodynamiques locales observées à proximité de l’interface liquide gaz. Les paramètres les plus pertinents pour expliquer les observations effectuées semblent être les grandeurs liées à la turbulence. L’application future de ce type de corrélation serait l’estimation et la prévision des zones d’émissions d’H2S. Ainsi serait-il possible d’identifier les points nécessitant une surveillance et une maintenance particulière. / Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a harmful and odorous compound which is also responsible for concrete corrosion in sewers. This phenomenon is costly for the communities. H2S is generated in anaerobic zones in sewer networks (biofilms, sediments, forced mains or stagnant zones), and released into the atmosphere under the form of H2S(g) in gravity pipes. Knowledge-based models are needed to improve the design and the management of wastewater collection systems. The objective of this PhD work is to better understand the mass transfer mechanisms of a water flow saturated in H2S when the flow becomes free. We plan to develop a technique to access the global mass transfer coefficient at the liquid- gas interface for H2S and O2. The effect of hydrodynamic, aeraulic conditions and the liquid-gas surface area on the transfer coefficient were studied in different geometries: small batch reactor of 5L and 10 meter sewer pipe device. A strong influence of the flow velocity on the global transfer coefficient was observed. This experimental approach was completed with a numerical approach. The use of computational fluid dynamics permitted to understand the behavior of transfer coefficient from local hydrodynamics fluctuations observed near the liquid/gas interface. The direct application of this kind of correlation would be the estimation of the transfer fluxes and the localization of hazardous areas for H2S concentration. Consequently it could be possible to identify the sensitive zones requiring a follow-up of the system or a strengthening of the structures.

Nous avons analysé le rôle joué dans les processus de détection, par des agrégats métalliques de Pt et de Pd dispersés dans des films minces de SnO2 destinés à la détection des gaz polluants réducteurs comme le CO, H2S ou NOx. L'évolution de l'état d'oxydation des agrégats de platine a été suivie par Spectroscopie d'Absorption X (XAS) in situ. Lorsqu'elles sont incorporées en quantité très faible, les particules de platine changent, d'une façon réversible, leur état d'oxydation, selon la nature de l'atmosphère environnante. L'état d'oxydation des particules dépend fortement de leur taille, (entre 0,5 et 4,5 nm) les plus petites passant d'un état complètement oxydé à un état fortement réduit -les liaisons Pt - O laissant place à des Pt - C lorsque les films sont en présence de CO. L'évolution de la conductance électrique lorsque les films sont mis en présence de CO a été corrélée à la rapidité de la réaction du réduction de platine. Une interaction électronique métal-SnO2 est à l'origine du pic de conductance observé à basse température. Une étude comparative des réponses électriques des couches platinées et dopées palladium, en présence de CO, H2 et H2S, a permis de proposer différents mécanismes de détection relatifs à chacun des gaz étudiés.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Physics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / The gas sensing performance of two-dimensional (2D) hexagonal boron nitride nanosheets (h-BNNSs) has being studied by means of computational and experimental methods. The structural, stability and vacancies properties of both defect free and defected 2D h-BNNSs were studied using the classical molecular dynamics (MD) approach. The calculations were performed in the NVT Evans and NPT hoover ensembles using the Tersoff potentials with the Verlet leapfrog algorithm to obtain reliable structural properties and energies for defect free, boron (B) and nitrogen (N) vacancies. B and N defect energies were calculated relative to the bulk defect free total energies, and the results suggest that N vacancy is the most stable vacancy as compared to the B vacancy. The radial distribution functions and structure factors were used to predict the most probable structural form. Mean square displacements suggests the mobility of B and N atoms in the system is increasing with an increase in the surface area of the nanosheets. Results obtained are compared with the bulk defect free h-BNNSs. Experimentally, 2D h-BNNSs were synthesised using the wet chemical reaction method through chemical vapour deposition (CVD) catalyst free approach. The X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman Spectroscopy (RM), UV-visible Spectroscopy (UV-VIS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Energy Dispersion Spectroscopy (EDS) and Brunauer-Emmett Teller (BET) were adopted to attain the structural properties of the nanosheets. Each spectroscopic technique affirmed unique features about the surface morphology of h BNNSs. The crystallinity of the nanosheets with the stacking of the B and N vii honeycomb lattice was validated by the XRD, while the TEM disclosed the specimen orientations and chemical compositions of phases with the number of layers of a planar honeycomb BN sheet, the EDS express the atoms present in the samples and BET validated the surface area of the materials. The FTIR, RM, DLS and the UV-vis expressed the formation of the in-plane, out-of-plane h-BN vibrations and, the nature of the surface with the thickness, particles stability together with the optical properties of the nanosheets. From TEM, FTIR, RS and BET the material fabricated at 800°C showed different morphologies, large number of disordering together with high surface area, which enhances the sensing properties of the nanosheets. However, with an increase in temperature the sensitivity of the nanosheets was found to decrease. Additionally, the UV-vis results, confirmed a lower energy band gap of 4.79, 4.55 and 4.70 eV for materials fabricated at 800, 900 and 1000 °C, that improved the semiconducting properties of the materials, which in return enhanced the sensing properties of the nanosheets. The gas sensing properties of the 2D h BNNSs were also investigated on hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon monoxide (CO). The fabricated sensor based on 800 – 900 °C h-BNNSs showed good sensitivity towards ppm of H2S at 250 °C. The excellent gas sensing properties could be attributed to high surface area, small crystallite size, defect/disordering of h BNNSs. Overall, the h-BNNSs were found to be more sensitive to H2S over CO. / University of Limpopo (UL) Mintek Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Center for High Performance Computing (CHPC)

Hydrocracking and hydrotreating are bitumen upgrading technologies designed to enhance fuel quality by decreasing its density, viscosity, boiling point and heteroatom content via hydrogen addition. The aim of this thesis is to model and simulate an upgrading and integrated gasification combined cycle then to evaluate the feasibility of integrating slurry hydrocracking, trickle-bed hydrotreating and residue gasification using the Aspen HYSYS® simulation software. The close-coupling of the bitumen upgrading facilities with gasification should lead to a hydrogen, steam and power self-sufficient upgrading facility with CO2 capture. Hydrocracker residue is first withdrawn from a 100,000 BPD Athabasca bitumen upgrading facility, characterized via ultimate analysis and then fed to a gasification unit where it produces hydrogen that is partially recycled to the hydrocracker and hydrotreaters and partially burned for power production in a high hydrogen combined cycle unit. The integrated design is simulated for a base case of 90% carbon capture utilizing a monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent, and compared to 65% and no carbon capture scenarios. The hydrogen production of the gasification process is evaluated in terms of hydrocracker residue and auxiliary petroleum coke feeds. The power production is determined for various carbon capture cases and for an optimal hydrocracking operation. Hence, the feasibility of the integration of the upgrading process and the IGCC resides in meeting the hydrogen demand of the upgrading facility while producing enough steam and electricity for a power and energy self-sufficient operation, regardless of the extent of carbon capture.