Au début du XVe siècle, les forêts domaniales devinrent un enjeu majeur dans les affaires du royaume de France. Gérées par l’administration des Eaux et Forêts, elles furent sur ordre du roi l’objet d’une surveillance particulière. L’étude du Coutumier d’Hector de Chartres, un registre du XVe siècle consignant les droits d’usage de centaines d’usagers des forêts du domaine normand de Charles VI, révèle la place que ces dernières occupaient dans la société en France dans les derniers siècles du Moyen Âge. D’une part, le Coutumier démontre qu’elles étaient non seulement importantes dans l’économie de la province mais qu’elles jouaient aussi un rôle essentiel dans la vie autant à la campagne que dans les villes. D’autre part, avec l’analyse des ordonnances forestières du XIVe siècle et du début du XVe siècle, il illustre comment elles furent d’une importance capitale pour le roi puisque ce dernier y prenait le bois nécessaire à la construction de sa marine et à l’entretien de ses forteresses normandes et qu’il en tirait d’importants revenus dans un contexte d’hostilités avec l’Angleterre. Ainsi, une relation de réciprocité bénéfique pour le roi et les usagers s’installa à travers un complexe système d’usages et de redevances. En cherchant à protéger ces bénéfices, les rois de France tentèrent de gérer adéquatement leurs forêts, établissant ainsi les jalons d’une foresterie durable tournée vers la préservation des ressources sylvicoles et se posant en gardiens du bien commun. / At the beginning of the XVth century, domanial forests became a major issue in the affairs of the kingdom of France. Managed by the Waters and Forests administration, they were put under close surveillance by the king’s decree. The study of Hector de Chartres’ customary, a XVth century register containing the customs of hundreds of users of Charles VI’s norman domain’s forests, reveals the place that they held in France at the end of the Middle Ages. It shows first that they were not only important in the province’s economic life but that they also played a major role in its urban and rural life. It also shows, with the analysis of a XIVth and XVth century corpus of royal ordonnances, how they were important for the king, who took there the ressources he needed to build a navy and maintain his fortresses in Normandy and who benefited from the users’ royalties. Thus, a complex relation which greatly benefited the two parties was created through a complex system of customs and royalties. By trying to protect these benefits, the kings of France tried to manage adequately their forests, establishing the bases of sustainable forestry oriented towards the conservation of forest ressources and acting as gardians of the kingdom’s common good.

This study utilizes correspondence, memoirs, and secondary sources to explore the lives and careers of six Continental Navy captains?Esek Hopkins, Joshua Barney, John Paul Jones, Hector McNeill, Lambert Wickes, and John Barry?and reveal the motivational factors of patriotism, a desire for fame and professional advancement, and financial stability which underlay their decisions to seek commissions in the Continental Navy, and influenced their conduct while in the service. Additionally, it suggests that prewar interactions in an "Atlantic World" context influenced the ideological and personal motivations that formed the foundations for service in the Continental Navy. All three motivations played a role in each captain's career and affected their conduct in relation to their understandings of duty, but the degree to which they influenced the captains varied. Although the promise of a steady income helped motivate initial service, financial considerations played a larger role throughout Barney's and Barry's careers than they did for other captains. The desire for fame and personal prestige also affected the conduct and service of all six men, though Jones and Hopkins provide more concrete examples of its influence. Finally, experiences interacting with West Indies and Atlantic trade networks before the war likely influenced the captains' development of revolutionary principles, and their dedication to the United States. In addition to patriotism, Jones professed a devotion to universal principles of liberty and rights, and McNeill perceived the Revolution as an attempt to establish God's Kingdom of the Just. The degree to which each captain succeeded in achieving his goals, and the affect his Continental service had on employment after the Revolution, also varied significantly. Hopkins failed as the navy's commander-in-chief, but his performance did not negatively impact his social and political standing in his native Rhode Island. Unlike McNeill, Captains Barry, Barney and Jones also utilized their networks of friends and acquaintances well, helping them find prestigious and stable employment in other seagoing capacities after the war. Wickes died in 1777, but his brief service also suggests he would have achieved success had he survived.

In this thesis, the main focus is on deontic logic as a tool for formal representation of moral reasoning in natural language. The simple standard system of deontic logic (SDL), i.e. the minimal Kripkean modal logic extended with the deontic axiom, stating that necessity (interpreted as obligation) implies possibility (interpreted as permission), has often been considered inadequate for this aim, due to different problems, e.g. the so-called deontic paradoxes. A general survey of deontic logic and the problems with SDL is made in chapter 1. In chapter 2, a system denoted Classical Deontic-Modal logic (CDM1) is defined. In this system, there is a primary obligation operator indexed to sets of possible worlds, and a secondary requirement operator, defined in terms of strictly necessary conditions for fulfilling an obligation. This secondary operator has most of the properties of the necessity operator in SDL. In chapters 3 and 4, it is argued that CDM1 is able to handle the SDL problems presented in chapter 1 in an adequate way, and the treatment of these problems in CDM1 is also compared with their treatment in some other well-known deontic systems. In chapter 5, it is argued that even though the problems related to quantification in modal contexts are relevant to deontic logic, these issues are not specific to deontic logic. In chapter 6, the relations between some controversial features of moral reasoning, such as moral dilemmas and “non-standard” deontic categories like supererogation, and deontic logic are discussed. It is shown how CDM1 can be modified in order to accommodate these features.

The thesis seeks to reveal, through the use of numerous case studies, the timekeeping processes that helped to make New Zealand. Whilst the period under review covers primarily the period 1840 to 1868 there is also a discussion of the emergence of clock time in thirteenth century Britain and Europe and its development through to the late nineteenth century. This is because the settlers‟ apprehension of time and their use of clocks and watches had evolved over the preceding centuries. The importance of reliable time was recognised by the Church from the medieval period but as ownership of public and private clocks proliferated the decentralisation of clock time commenced. Clock time commanded the lives of people and imprinted itself through the inculcation of such notions as punctuality and productivity. Better clocks brought a new emphasis to workplace efficiency underpinning the belief that time was money and facilitated the efficient coordination of Land, Labour and Capital. The discovery of New Zealand required timekeeping at sea. The achievements of James Cook, underpinned by improved chronometers, facilitated the large-scale British colonisation of New Zealand and seldom brought respite from the rule of time. Once on land, the settlers looked to establish a temporal order similar to Britain. The challenge to establish and disseminate the „true‟ local time within communities led to the setting up of observatories and the use of public clocks, time ball stations, bells and guns to signal clock time. The myriad of local times was not a problem at first but once the telegraph began to link communities they hindered its optimal efficiency. This led to the introduction of „telegraph time‟ in early 1868, dual time systems in communities using the telegraph, and public debate. Whilst most provinces accepted the new clock time, Otago saw it as an affront to their community‟s autonomy and identity. The province challenged the imposition of telegraph time, instigated a Parliamentary debate, and argued for the introduction of a common New Zealand time. Parliament‟s 1868 decision was a triumph for convenience and economic rationality over tradition and local identity. New Zealand was the first country entirely to abandon local times and regulate its time in relation to Greenwich mean time.

No description available.

It is a generally accepted scholarly truth that Shakespeare’s Macbeth was written with the intent of pleasing the newly crowned James I, a few years after his ascension to the English throne in 1603. The main arguments for this claim are, first, Shakespeare’s inclusion of witches—a well-known interest of James’s—and second, the portrayal of Banquo, the fictional ancestor of the House of Stuart. Some recent scholarship has, however, questioned this view, arguing, among other things, that James did not wish to be associated with his Scottish heritage and that witchcraft is not as prominent in Shakespeare’s play as it might have been if pleasing James was his objective. In this paper, I look specifically at the part of the theory of “the royal play” which pertains to the question of the witches and, against the background of this recent research, argue that Shakespeare’s reasons for including witches in his play have less to do with James and more to do with his own interest in human psychology. By analysing the ways in which Shakespeare adapts his sources—the chronicles of Raphael Holinshed and Hector Boece—I argue, first, that Shakespeare is less interested in catering specifically to James’s demonological theories than to make the three women into witches as such. Secondly, I compare the function of prophecy in Macbeth to Greek tragedy and the historical writing of Holinshed and Boece against the sociological theory of George Park and argue that Shakespeare’s purpose in letting witches function as the deliverers of prophecy is to create an element of uncertainty and thus a vantage point from which to explore the psychological complexities of human decision-making and the perils of trusting appearances.

Le personnage d'Hector, guerrier troyen, est aussi l'un des Neuf Preux ayant marqué l'imaginaire de l'aristocratie laïque du Moyen Âge. Le héros, malgré sa mort prématurée dans le récit, joue un rôle de premier plan dans le Roman de Troie. Écrit vers 1160 par le clerc français Benoît de Sainte-Maure, ce texte appartient à la catégorie des romans antiques qui se développe au XIIe siècle en reprenant des textes épiques de l'Antiquité. Les romans antiques se caractérisent notamment par la présence d'ekphraseis qui relèvent du topos littéraire de la merveille médiévale, particulièrement apprécié au sein de l'élite laïque. Le Roman de Troie constitue en quelque sorte le fondement sur lequel se basent plusieurs autres auteurs de la fin du Moyen Âge pour remanier la matière troyenne, qui relève évidemment du monde païen. De cette tradition littéraire, nous avons choisi de traiter du motif ekphrastique de l'exposition du cadavre d'Hector dans son tombeau merveilleux. Ce motif a été enluminé à plusieurs reprises et ce, dans divers manuscrits datant de la période allant de la fin du XIIIe siècle au début du XVIe siècle. Le but de notre recherche est d'interroger, dans la logique de la relation image-texte (approche), la nature de la relation entre la représentation iconographique et sa description en réfléchissant aux relations entre les traditions funéraires de l'Occident chrétien et le topos littéraire de la merveille. En d'autres termes, nous tentons de cerner les « solutions » choisies pour négocier les tensions entre la tradition chrétienne et l'imaginaire profane (problématique). Le premier chapitre est dévolu à la présentation de notre corpus varié, à l'élaboration du bilan historiographique et à la présentation de la méthodologie, soit une analyse sérielle d'un corpus d'images tendant vers l'exhaustivité. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous interrogeons la première sous-catégorie de notre corpus : plusieurs enluminures évacuent le tombeau au profit d'un cercueil conventionnel. Nous démontrons que ces représentations, dans l'optique d'une économie du processus de création, s'inscrivent dans l'iconographie et la réalité des rituels chrétiens traditionnels. Le troisième chapitre concerne la deuxième sous-catégorie de notre corpus, soit les enluminures qui figurent directement le tombeau ekphrastique. Elles sont le fruit de processus de création diversifiés et inventifs, dont la majorité produit des représentations à caractère hybride. Ces dernières font coïncider la typologie réelle des monuments funéraires et les données merveilleuses de l'ekphrasis en soulignant la symbolique princière, sainte et païenne du héros. Quelques tombeaux enluminés prennent aussi une apparence inédite. Nous observons que, dans l'ensemble, l'origine géographique des œuvres a une influence importante sur le rendu iconographique du tombeau et des personnages. Enfin, l'ultime chapitre se concentre plus spécifiquement sur le cadavre exposé d'Hector et/ou son effigie ressemblante. Nous avons l'intuition que les représentations enluminées ne sont pas étrangères à certaines conceptions symboliques du corps (ou de sa représentation) au Moyen Âge. Tout en démontrant que notre corpus reflète les mondes religieux, politique, culturel et imaginaire de ses producteurs, nous contribuons à la recherche encore naissante sur l'iconographie du topos littéraire de la merveille médiévale.

Des preuves archéopalynologiques directes appuient maintenant l’hypothèse d’une lente adaptation horticole durant la néolithisation amérindienne de la région de Montréal. Les sites archéologiques Hector-Trudel (BhFl-1a) de Pointe-du-Buisson et Séminaire de Saint-Sulpice (BjFj-18) dans le Vieux-Montréal ont été retenus pour élaborer une méthodologie archéopalynologique d’étude des sols archéologiques. Cela a permis de caractériser l’impact de la présence humaine sur l'environnement végétal des sites et d’identifier des indices de culture et de gestion de plantes allogènes et indigènes. Un complexe horticole de production à petite échelle de maïs (Zea mays), de tournesol (Helianthus annuus) et de petit tabac (Nicotiana rustica) et une forme de gestion des arbustes à petits fruits sont identifiés au site Hector-Trudel durant le Sylvicole moyen tardif (500 à 1000 A.D.). Ces cultigènes sont aussi identifiés au site du Séminaire pour la fin du Sylvicole supérieur ancien (1200 à 1300 A.D.), dans des proportions toutefois plus importantes, et une activité de gestion forestière au profit des arbres à noix et du tilleul d’Amérique (Tilia americana), reflet des pratiques d’entretien des champs cultivés, témoignent d’une évolution dans les comportements / Direct archaeopalynological proof now supports the hypothesis of a slow horticultural adaptation during the Native American neolithisation of the Montreal area. Archaeological sites Hector-Trudel (BhF1-la) of Pointe-du-Buisson and Séminaire de Saint-Sulpice (BjFj-18) in Old Montreal were retained to elaborate an archaeopalynological methodology of archaeological soil study. This has allowed to characterize the impact of human presence of a vegetal environment on the sites and to identify signs of cultivation and management of alien and indigenous plants. A horticultural complex producing corn (Zea mays), sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and native tobacco (Nicotina rustica) on a small scale and a form of fruit-bearing shrubs management are identified at the Hector-Trudel site during the Late Middle Woodland (A.D. 500 to 1000). These cultigens are also identified at the Séminaire site for the end of the Early Late Woodland (A.D. 1200 to 1300), though in bigger proportions, and a woodland management activity benefiting nut trees and the American basswood (Tilia americana), reflecting cultivated field maintenance practices, are evidence of an evolution in behaviors.

The aim of this diploma thesis is to point out how personal experience and memories on the drug violence that was common in Colombia during 80's - 90's reflect in the novelistic works of a few contemporary Colombian writers. The thesis is based on the following five novels: Noticia de un secuestro (Gabriel García Márquez), El olvido que seremos (Hector Abad Faciolince), El ruido de las cosas al caer, Reputaciones (Juan Gabriel Vásquez) a La luz difícil (Tomás González). Aforementioned books were published after the year 2000 (Noticia de un secuestro makes an exception), thus they come from the writers that represent same generation. Almost all of the analyzed books are connected with the topic of terrorism of drug mafia and they take interest in the life of ordinary people. By analyzing novels, the thesis tries to point out also another topics, such as death or power of the fame and public opinion in the country. In each novel are analyzed also autobiographical features, language style and the process of the creation of the text. The last chapter contains memories and opinions of ten Colombian respondents which we can compare with the memories of the writers. Thanks to these opinions we can imagine not only the past of Colombia but partly also her current state. Key words: contemporary Colombian...

Este trabalho visa estudar a representação da infância e da criança em romances europeus escritos entre 1850 e a primeira década do século XX. O corpus analisado compõe-se de três obras que se inserem na chamada literatura infantojuvenil. A primeira intitula-se Sans famille, escrita pelo francês Hector Malot e publicada em 1878. A segunda, de autoria do italiano Carlo Collodi, é o clássico As aventuras de Pinóquio, publicado entre 1881 e 1883. E, finalmente, a terceira obra, Peter e Wendy, foi escrita por J. M. Barrie e publicada em 1911. A pesquisa leva em conta alguns fatores decisivos para o desenvolvimento da literatura infantojuvenil europeia. Um deles é a percepção de que a infância constitui, de fato, uma fase de desenvolvimento marcadamente distinta da adulta. O mercado editorial, atento às percepções de sua época, passa a produzir uma quantidade de obras destinadas ao público jovem, algo até então sem precedente. Tais obras se diferenciam das antecessoras em especial pela linguagem e pelos temas de interesse específico deste público. Além disso, a própria literatura irá incorporar em sua narrativa a criança e o jovem como protagonistas, reforçando ainda mais o contato com esse novo público leitor. Sob a inspiração dos ensaios de Erich Auerbach em sua obra Mimesis, também neste trabalho foram selecionadas três obras de culturas diferentes e que pudessem trazer informações sobre a representação ficcional da infância. A narrativa francesa Sans famille, imbuída dos movimentos sociais do século XIX, traça um retrato da criança abandonada (enfant trouvé), estigmatizada desde seu nascimento, um fenômeno presente em toda a Europa. Em As aventuras de Pinóquio, o tema é outro: em uma Itália recém-unificada pela força, o romance de Pinóquio problematiza a questão educacional, que será a bandeira do novo governo. Por fim, Peter e Wendy representa crianças autônomas representando a crise de valores entre as expectativas dos adultos e os desejos das crianças e, assim, acena para a moderna literatura do século XX. Esta tese defende que tais obras são capitais para o surgimento de uma nova narrativa destinada ao público infantojuvenil e que seus protagonistas iniciaram uma nova representação de personagem criança na literatura, especialmente Pinóquio e Peter Pan. Ao final, o leitor encontra uma entrevista com o pesquisador inglês Peter Hunt, realizada exclusivamente para este trabalho. / This work aims to study the representation of childhood and child in European novels written between 1850 and the first decade of the twentieth century. The corpus analyzed is composed of three works that belong to the so-called children\'s literature. The first is entitled Sans famille, written by the Frenchman Hector Malot and published in 1878. The second, by the Italian Carlo Collodi, is the classic The Adventures of Pinocchio, published between 1881 and 1883. And finally, the third work, Peter and Wendy, was written by J.M. Barrie and published in 1911. The research takes into account some decisive factors for the development of European children\'s literature. One is the perception that childhood is, in fact, a phase of development markedly different from that of adulthood. The publishing market, attentive to the perceptions of its time, begins to produce a quantity of works destined to the young public, something hitherto unprecedented. Such works differ from the predecessors, especially in the language and themes of specific interest of this public. In addition, the literature itself will incorporate the child and the young person as protagonists in their narrative, reinforcing even more the contact with this new readership. Under the inspiration of Erich Auerbach\'s essays in his work Mimesis, in this work three books of different cultures were also selected bringing information about the fictional representation of childhood. The French narrative Sans famille, imbued with the social movements of the nineteenth century, traces a portrait of the abandoned child (\"enfant trouvé\"), stigmatized since its birth, a phenomenon present throughout Europe. In The Adventures of Pinocchio, the theme is different: in a newly unified Italy by force, the novel problematizes the educational system, which will be the banner of the new government. Finally, Peter and Wendy depicting autonomous children representing the crisis of values between the expectations of the adults and the desires of the children and, thus, nods to the modern literature of the twentieth century. This thesis argues that such works are important for the emergence of a new narrative aimed at children and young people and that their protagonists started a new representation of child character in literature, especially Pinocchio and Peter Pan. At the end, the reader finds an interview with the English researcher Peter Hunt, made exclusively for this work.