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This project explores the contemporary history of segregation in Scottish prisons, focusing on measures of ‘special handling’ particularly the network of small units that was operative between the 1950s and the 1990s. Scotland has a complicated, troubling, idiosyncratic and, to a lesser degree, inspiring tradition of special handling measures, involving generic punishment blocks, anachronistic isolation units, highly innovative specialist units, ‘safe’ and ‘silent’ cells, and more collective segregation spaces such as vulnerable prisoners wings. Such sites have provoked considerable attention across public and political arenas; they have been sources of shame, pride, criticism and confusion; in specific penal moments, they have been experienced by prisoners (and officers) as warzones, sanctuaries, coffins and creative spaces; and, in terms of efficacy, they have both exacerbated and ameliorated the behavioural difficulties of the prisoners contained within them. The objectives of this research are (1) to chronologically map the evolution of key segregation sites, attending to the external pressures that have informed the policies, procedures and rules governing their protean use, (2) to explore the impact of particular environmental factors on the initial design, operation and, subsequently, the closure of these sites, and (3) to reflect on the relationship between space and the ways individuals have understood, coped with, and in various ways ‘acted-out’ their segregated confinement. Deciding who, how and why to segregate prisoners raises questions of a conceptual, operational, political, and moral nature. But deciding where to segregate prisoners situates such questions within the physical constraints and potentialities of space. By adopting a spatial-temporal approach, this research straddles disciplines, utilising the methods of penal history, prison sociology, and – though in a more approximate manner – the steadily burgeoning sub-discipline of carceral geography. Additionally, by marshalling a number of personal testimonies, this history attempts to capture the emotional resonances of segregation – how it feels to actually live and work in ‘prisons within prisons’.

My thesis describes the praxis of geographical exploration in the mid-nineteenth century through the activities of members of the Royal Geographical Society of London (RGS). I focus on the First East African Expedition (1856-1859), which was led by Richard F. Burton. Geographical exploration was intended to provide data that would allow geographers in Britain to construct an accurate description of East Africa, with emphasis on the rivers and lakes that may contribute to the waters of the Nile and ethnographic research. Earlier geographies of the East African interior had relied upon a variety of sources: ancient, Arab, Portuguese, and local informants. In order to replace these sources with precise observation, the RGS provided some prescriptive instructions to explorers based upon the techniques of celestial navigation and surveying available for field research in the 1850s. The instructions emphasized careful, daily recording of data, using instruments as much as possible. However, in the field explorers experienced a diminished ability to control the consistency of their observations due to insufficient finances, politics, disease, and climate. Where unable to directly observe, they relied upon local informants for descriptions of the regional geography. These informants had a great impact upon the geographies produced by the expedition. In order to complete a full description of the praxis of geographical exploration it therefore becomes necessary to consider the expedition in its wider context--as a remote sensing tool for a scientific society and as a contingent of foreigners visiting a region for which they have little information and entered only with local permission. I propose that five steps, or contexts, must be considered during the analysis of expeditions: contact, acquisition, appropriation, reporting, meta-analysis. These steps make lucid the epistemic transformations that must take place as explorers gather data in the field. At each stage the identity of the individuals involved are contingent upon their relationship with each other and the information they desire. The relationship between explorers and local informants was especially critical to the establishment of credibility. Even when fully trusted by explorers, the British geographers who analyzed expedition data and generated maps of the region debated the veracity of local informants. Explorers (and by extension, local informants) found that other researchers, through the meta-analysis of expedition reports, appropriated any ownership of the information produced by expeditions. / Master of Science

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Geography / John Harrington, Jr. / Geographers, as part of their work as scholars and academics, continually “do” geography. Geography is practiced as research when tools, perspectives, and techniques are applied to problems or areas of study, exploring, understanding, and building geographical information. Geography is practiced as a social discipline when geographers interact with those around them, sharing geographical knowledge through writing, publishing, presenting, teaching, and discussion so others can read, listen, and engage. In doing geography – continuously practicing research and engaging in the documentation and communication of geographical knowledge – geographers also actively continuously construct the history of geography. These incidences, slides, and pages of knowledges are the foundation and structure of geography as a practiced discipline. Research explored the historiographies of geographical knowledges in presidential addresses of the Association of American Geographers, thematic conceptualizations of the subfield of cultural geography, and representation of women across editions of introductory human geography textbooks through content analysis and spatial. Conclusions strongly support the contention that geographic knowledges and the nature of geographic thought actively evolve as contemporary scholars practice their profession. By paying attention to these constructive processes and understanding their interactive role in it, geographers are better informed of the history of their specialty and their direct and vested role in the enterprise.

Esta tese busca analisar a história da geografia crítica na França e nos Estados Unidos, principalmente através da concepção de estrutura. A partir de uma compreensão preliminar dos geógrafos anarquistas do século XIX, seguimos para a análise do marxismo e do debate sobre o materialismo geográfico entre geopolíticos e intérpretes do pensamento marxiano na geografia. Após a limitação da possibilidade histórica do desenvolvimento de uma geografia de esquerda na Alemanha, nos voltamos para a análise da geografia francesa que interage com o marxismo devido à resistência ao nazismo e à necessidade de emancipar-se de algumas concepções do pensamento vidaliano. Acompanhamos, então, o rico desenvolvimento da geografia de esquerda como as análises de geografia urbana e econômica, assim como a introdução da temática do subdesenvolvimento. A geografia de esquerda desacelera-se com a crise do marxismo e a ascensão da nova geografia. Contudo, pouco tempo depois, o descrédito da geografia quantitativa, o contexto mundial de lutas revolucionárias e os eventos de maio de 68 fazem surgir a geografia crítica. No caso francês, exploramos as relações entre a geografia de esquerda e o surgimento da geografia crítica; para os Estados Unidos, tentamos demonstrar como alguns de seus desenvolvimentos originam-se da nova geografia quantitativa. Através do estruturalismo althusseriano e os intelectuais que o atacaram, surge o processo de transformação epistemológica e de instituicionalização em que geógrafos outrora marginalizados começam a integrar a academia e desfrutar de um grande capital cultural. No entanto, a institucionalização representa a normatização e a desradicalização. A ascensão do pós-modernismo conjuntamente ao esmorecimento do marxismo em âmbito internacional faz com que o projeto da geografia crítica altere-se profundamente, abrindo precedentes para a consolidação cada vez mais intensa do pós-estruturalismo no final da década de 1980. / This thesis analyzes the history of critical geography in France and the United States, primarily through the conception of the structure. Our approach will preliminary understand the nineteenth-century anarchist geographers followed by the analysis of marxisms rise and geographical materialism debate among geopoliticals and interpreters of Marxian thought in geography. After the impossibility to develop a left geography in Germany, we turn to the analysis of French geography interacts with marxism tied to the resistance to nazism and the need to emancipate itself from some conceptions of Vidal de la Blache thought. We see the rich development of left geography in his urban and economic analysis, as well in introducting the theme of underdevelopment. The left geography decelerates with the crisis of marxism and the rise of new geography. However, shortly after the discrediting of quantitative geography, the global context of revolutionary struggles and the events of May 68 give rise to critical geography. In the french case, we explore the relations between the left geography and the emergence of critical geography, and explaning about United States we tried to demonstrate how some of their new developments came from quantitative geography. Through the althusserian structuralism and his criticals is possible to see the epistemological and institutional transformations in which geographers formerly marginalized begin to integrate the university and enjoy a great cultural capital. However, institutionalization is normalization and deradicalization. The insurgency of postmodernism with the demise internationally marxism makes changes in critical geography setting precedents for increasingly consolidation of post-structuralism in the late 1980s.

Esta dissertação discute o verbete Geografia Física, elaborado por Nicolas Desmarest e publicado na Encyclopédie de Diderot e DAlembert em 1757, o qual apresenta uma proposta de se fazer e pensar Geografia diferente das interpretações comumente aceitas pela História da Geografia para o pensamento geográfico do século XVIII. Elaborado pelo homem de letras Nicolas Desmarest, no seio do Iluminismo e do enciclopedismo francês, este trabalho analisou o verbete no contexto deste movimento e das tradições científicas que teorizaram a Terra e seus fenômenos na primeira metade do século XVIII. Diante da discussão realizada, constatou-se a existência de uma legítima Geografia teorizada pelas Luzes e propagada pela Encyclopédie, bem como o papel central assumido por Nicolas Desmarest para o desenvolvimento deste saber. Além disso, revelou a existência de uma importante controvérsia científica entre a Geografia Física e a Teoria da Terra, a qual foi debatida por Nicolas Desmarest e Buffon no limiar do nascimento das chamadas Geologia e Geografia modernas. / In this work we discuss about the article Physical Geography, that was created by Nicolas Desmarest and published in the Diderot and DAlemberts Encyclopedia in 1757. The article introduced a proposal to do and to think Geography different from what is commonly accepted by the History of Geography to the 18th century geographical thought. It was elaborated by the man of letters Nicolas Desmarest, in the middle of the Enlightenment and the French encyclopedism. This work analyzed the article in the context of this movement and in the scientific traditions that theorized the Earth and its phenomena in the 18th century first half. In front of this discussion, we noted the existence of a genuine Geography theorized by the Enlightenment and propagated by the Encyclopedia, which Nicolas Desmarest assumed a central position to the development of this knowledge. Furthermore, this work revealed an important scientific controversy between the Physical Geography and the Theory of the Earth that was discussed by Nicolas Desmarest and Buffon, in the dawn of so-called modern Geology and Geography.

Esta dissertação é resultado de uma pesquisa nas áreas de Teoria e Método e de História da Geografia e foi construída baseada no estudo de jornais, revistas e correspondências que abordaram os escritos de Élisée Reclus, em especial daqueles realizados e publicados no Brasil. O presente trabalho busca reabrir o debate em torno da hipótese levantada por Beatrice Giblin e Yves Lacoste na década de 1970 sobre o esquecimento ou silenciamento de Reclus na geografia. Para tanto, foi realizado um esforço de mapear e contextualizar as referencias à obra de Reclus, desde 1862 ano de aparição da primeira referencia a Reclus em território brasileiro até as pesquisas atuais produzidas no Brasil. Devido ao extenso período analisado o presente trabalho busca ao mesmo tempo catalogar essas referências (a fim de que sirvam de subsídios para futuros estudos) e analisar alguns debates que julgamos centrais na recepção das ideias de Reclus no Brasil, em especial sobre os temas da escravidão e da colonização. Desse modo, o objetivo desta pesquisa é apontar e analisar esta visão produzida a partir de autores e publicações brasileiras da obra de Élisée Reclus. / This dissertation is the result of research in Theory and Method and History of Geography areas and was built based on the study of newspapers, magazines and correspondence about Élisée Reclus writings, especially those carried out and published in Brazil. This work seeks to reopen the debate on the hypothesis raised by Beatrice Giblin and Yves Lacoste in the 1970s about the forgetting or silencing of Reclus geography. Therefore, an effort was made to map and contextualize the references to the work of Reclus, since 1862 - the year of appearance of the first reference to Reclus in Brazil - to current research produced in Brazil. Due to the extended period analyzed, the present work at the same time seaks to catalog these references (in order to serve as subsidies for future studies) and analyze some debates that we consider central to the receipt of Reclus ideas in Brazil, particularly on the issues of slavery and colonization. Thus, the objective of this research is to point out and analyze this vision produced from Brazilian authors and publications about the work of Élisée Reclus.

O objetivo geral da pesquisa consiste em analisar a vinculação do Conselho Nacional de Geografia (CNG) e do Departamento de Geografia da Universidade de São Paulo (DG-USP) às demandas do Estado brasileiro e a emergência de um discurso geográfico eminentemente científico, entre o momento de criação dessas instituições, a partir de 1934, e a realização do XVIII Congresso Internacional de Geografia, em 1956, marcos que delimitam um importante período de consolidação do pensamento geográfico brasileiro. Para tanto, além da análise do contexto histórico brasileiro no seio do qual floresceram as principais instituições geográficas modernas, analisa-se a Revista Brasileira de Geografia, principal veículo divulgador da Geografia praticada no Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), sediado no Rio de Janeiro, em especial materiais publicados nas subáreas de Cartografia, Geografia Política e Geografia Econômica, selecionados após análise do conjunto do periódico. Representativas do pensamento desenvolvido em São Paulo, analisam-se também seis das primeiras oito teses defendidas junto ao DG-USP e, por fim, estabelece-se uma comparação quanto à natureza do saber produzido entre os centros paulista e carioca de pesquisa em Geografia, a relação estabelecida entre eles e os elementos políticos aos quais se vinculou o pensamento geográfico em diferentes ambientes de produção de conhecimento. Para o desenvolvimento desta pesquisa, parte-se da premissa, consolidada na história do pensamento geográfico, de que o desenvolvimento da ciência geográfica não é eventual ou fortuito, mas está atrelado à consolidação do Estado em sua fase territorial, quando os limites nacionais tendem a se confundir com limites territoriais específicos. O CNG representaria a lógica estatal sobre o território nacional e a este se associaria diretamente o projeto político-cultural das recémcriadas instituições de ensino superior a Universidade do Distrito Federal e, pouco depois, a Universidade do Brasil. Já o DG-USP se vincularia a um projeto nacional diverso, ligado a interesses regionais da elite econômica paulista e, por isso mesmo, manter-se-ia relativamente desassociado dos interesses políticos do Governo Federal. Da ambiguidade entre o pragmatismo da prática e o academicismo na apresentação dos resultados, o serviço tomado para si pela comunidade geográfica justificou a utilidade do saber praticado e criou condições concretas para sua reprodução. O contexto de reprodução do conhecimento geográfico indica que a relevância institucional e social deste saber advinha da possibilidade de contribuir com o avanço das forças produtivas em território nacional, não apenas junto ao IBGE, mas também junto às Universidades, o que justifica o engajamento político dos geógrafos junto ao Estado. Desta contribuição complacente com o Estado, a Geografia atrelou seu destino às demandas dos grandes círculos de poder e ocasionou uma dissonância entre pensamento e leitura geográfica de mundo, quando a descrição sintética da paisagem deixou de ser suficiente para as necessidades de intervenção sobre a realidade. A pesquisa, assim, além de resgatar fundamentos da forma e do conteúdo que dão sentido à maneira geográfica de ler o mundo, recupera elementos básicos do pensamento geográfico tradicional necessários para a adequada compreensão da crítica subsequente a ele direcionado. / The main objective of this research is to analyze the linkage of the National Council of Geography (Conselho Nacional de Geografia CNG) and the Department of Geography of the University of São Paulo (DG-USP) to the demands of the Brazilian state and the rise of a essentially geographical scientific discourse between the moment of creation of these institutions, since 1934, and the realization of the XVIII International Congress of Geography, in 1956, an important event that defines a period of consolidation of Brazilian geographical thought. Therefore, besides the Brazilian historical context analysis in midst of which flourished the major modern geographical institutions, it is analyzed the Brazilian Journal of Geography (Revista Brasileira de Geografia), the main promoter vehicle of Geography practiced in Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística IBGE), based in Rio de Janeiro, in particular the material published in Cartography, Political Geography and Economic Geography, subareas selected after analysis of the journal. As representatives of the geographic thought developed in São Paulo, six of the first eight doctoral thesis defended at DG-USP are also analyzed. Finally, it is realized a comparison between the geographical knowledge produced in São Paulo and in Rio de Janeiro research centers, the relationship established between them and the political elements to which the geographical thought in different knowledge production environments were linked. For the development of this research, it is assumed, based on the history of geographical thought, that development of geographical science is not contingent or fortuitous, but is related to the consolidation of the state in its territorial stage, when national limits tend to overlap specific territorial limits. CNG would represent the state logic over the national territory and to it would be directly associated the political-cultural project of the newly established higher education institutions University of the Federal District and, shortly after, University of Brazil. However, DG-USP would be linked to a different national project, associated to the local economic elite of São Paulo and, for this very reason, would keep itself relatively disassociated of political interests of Federal Government. From the ambiguity between pragmatism of practice and academicism in the presentation of results, the task assumed by the geographic community justified the utility of the knowledge then practiced and created concrete conditions for their reproduction. The reproduction context of geographical knowledge indicates that institutional and social relevance of knowledge stemmed from the possibility of contributing with the advance of productive forces in national territory not only at IBGE, but also at universities, which explains the political engagement of geographers within the state. From this complacent contribution to the state, Geography linked their fate to the demands of large circles of power and caused a dissonance between thought and geographical reading of the world, since a concise description of the landscape was no longer sufficient for the needs of intervention on reality. Therefore, this research, in addition to rescue foundations of form and content that give meaning to the geographical way of reading the world, recovers basic elements of traditional geographical thought which are necessary for the proper understanding of the subsequent criticism to it directed.

nÃo hà / A cidade de Fortaleza passou por significativas mudanÃas, relacionadas Ãs diretrizes racionais, inseridas no seu espaÃo urbano. A evoluÃÃo do sistema econÃmico renovando e recriando novos processos de acumulaÃÃo atravÃs do avanÃo da tÃcnica e da ciÃncia atingiram as prÃticas sociais e reestruturaram a malha urbana. Algumas Ãreas na cidade foram mais afetadas por essas transformaÃÃes que outras. Nos bairros, houve na maioria dos casos uma oscilaÃÃo entre deterioraÃÃo e renovaÃÃo, reorganizaÃÃo e ampliaÃÃo de suas funÃÃes e caracterÃsticas. Entre esses bairros, destaca-se o Benfica. Isso à percebido de vÃrias maneiras: construÃÃes de prÃdios em condomÃnio e shopping center, contrastando com a feira-livre mais antiga de Fortaleza; a permanÃncia de famÃlias, que nÃo querem mudar-se do bairro e que ali moram a mais de 50 anos, das rodas de amigos (moradores, estudantes, funcionÃrios, professores e frequentadores do bairro) nos bares e churrascarias, da presenÃa de pessoas que jà moraram no bairro e que sempre o visitam para âmatar um pouco da saudade, batendo um papo com os velhos amigosâ, no prÃ-carnaval e carnaval, referencial na busca de uma identidade prÃpria para o carnaval de Fortaleza e nas vÃrias instituiÃÃes educacionais ali instaladas. AtravÃs do estudo das prÃticas educativas desenvolvidas no bairro Benfica, por seus moradores, alunos, professores e funcionÃrios de instituiÃÃes educacionais, comerciantes e comerciÃrios, sindicalistas, entre outros, perceberemos, que mais que qualquer lugar da nossa cultura, o bairro à o espaÃo que fala da nossa experiÃncia emocional, uma autoreferÃncia da vida social. AlÃm da funÃÃo educacional que diferencia o Benfica dos demais bairros de Fortaleza, ele, tambÃm, à um espaÃo carregado de simbologia, produto do cotidiano, resultante dos segmentos populacionais que o transformaram em espaÃo de integraÃÃo social. Nosso estudo objetiva apresentar as prÃticas educativas que se desenvolvem no Benfica, a partir das narrativas daqueles que moram e convivem no bairro, associada a outras fontes como imagÃticas e documentos escritos, para uma interpretaÃÃo utilizando o mÃtodo hermenÃutico e um aporte teÃrico que se sustenta na Nova HistÃria Cultural, na Nova Geografia Cultural, na MemÃria, na HistÃria Oral, na Micro-HistÃria, na HistÃria e Geografia Local e no conceito de PrÃticas Educativas / The city of Fortaleza underwent significant changes, related to the rational guidelines, inserted in its urban space. The evolution of the economic system renewing and recreating new processes of accumulation through the advancement of technology and science reached social practices and restructured the urban fabric. Some areas in the city were more affected by these transformations than others. In the neighborhoods there was in most cases an oscillation between deterioration and renovation, reorganization and expansion of its functions and characteristics. Among these neighborhoods, Benfica stands out. This is perceived in several ways: Construction of condominium buildings and shopping center, contrasting with the oldest fair-free of Fortaleza; The permanence of families, who do not want to move out of the neighborhood and who live there for more than 50 years, from the wheels of friends (residents, students, employees, teachers and residents of the neighborhood) in bars and steakhouses, Already lived in the neighborhood and who always visit him to "kill a little of nostalgia, chatting with old friends", in the pre-carnival and carnival, a reference in the search of an identity for the Carnival of Fortaleza and in the various educational institutions Installed there. Through the study of the educational practices developed in the Benfica neighborhood, by its residents, students, teachers and employees of educational institutions, merchants and traders, trade unionists, among others, we will realize that more than anywhere in our culture, the neighborhood is the space that Speaks of our emotional experience, a self-reference of social life. In addition to the educational function that differentiates Benfica from the other neighborhoods of Fortaleza, it is also a space loaded with symbolism, a product of everyday life, resulting from the population segments that transformed it into a space for social integration. Our study aims to present the educational practices that develop in Benfica, based on the narratives of those who inhabit and live in the neighborhood, associated with other sources such as images and written documents, for an interpretation using the hermeneutical method and a theoretical contribution that is based on the New Cultural History, New Cultural Geography, Memory, Oral History, Microhistory, History and Local Geography and the concept of Educational Practices