Denna studie behandlar bondehushållets försörjningsmönster och dess utveckling sent 1800-tal. Undersökningen fokuserar på ett svenskt hushåll åren 1870-1900, enperiod då jordbruksekonomin integrerades i marknader och ledde till ökad specialisering, nya jordbruksvaror, ökad rationalisering i produktionen och Bruksdöd för gamla näringar. Hushållet, Tomtas gård i Folkärna socken uti södra Dalarna, utgör ett av de bondehushåll i Sverige som själv dokumenterade processen genom bondedagbokens dagliga och vardagliga notiser. Den ekonomiska vardagen i bondehushållet har studerats för att förstå vad förändringarna innebar för människorna som direkt deltog i-, och påverkades av, marknadsintegreringen. Detta har skett genom att studera bondehushållets medlemssammansättning och tidsdisposition för olika arbetsmoment utifrån antagandet att husbondens livscykel hade en avgörande inverkan på bondehushållets försörjningsmönster. Livscykel förstås här som den tid då gårdsansvar innehas av en husbonde fram till dess att en ny husbonde, son eller svärson, tar över gården. Under livscykelns gång förändras, utökas och minskas, produktionen i relation till husbondens egen fas i livet. I kombination med aggregerad data från myndigheter har bondedagboken använts för att ge en detaljerad källa av den ekonomiska vardagen vid bondehushållet. Studien visar att bondehushållet marknadsanpassade sin produktion och utnyttjade det växande näringslivet i socknen för fortsatt förädling av egna varor. Processen tog sig även uttryck i medlemssammansättningen då primärt pigor anställdes för boskapsskötseln, vilket traditionellt utfördes av kvinnor. Bondehushållets livscykel kan utifrån nuvarande studie inte sägas ha ändrat marknadsanpassningen. Samtidigt framgår att interna konflikter om gårdsansvar inverkade på försörjningsmöjligheterna. En utvecklad metod krävs för att värdera betydelsen av husbondens livscykel för bondehushållets försörjningsmönster, framförallt om en närmare förståelse av kvinnors arbete ska kunna uppnås. / This study is concerned with the farmer households pattern of sustenance and its development. The study focuses on one Swedish household between 1870-1900. The late 19th century was a period when agricultural economy became increasingly integrated in markets, leading to increased specialisation and rationalisation of production and subsequent outsourcing of production from previous centres of manufacture. The household members of Tomtas farm in Folkärna parish, within southern Dalarna, were among the households in Sweden that documented this process through the daily reports of a diary. The economic every-day of the household has been studied in order to understand what these changes meant for the people who directly participated in, and were affected by, the market integration of agriculture. This has been conducted by focusing on the household’s member composition and the work allocation of its members; the theoretical assumption being that the family-fathers life cycle imposed limits on a household’s pattern of sustenance. The life cycle is here understood as the period when a male figurehead held household responsibility until a son or son-in-law took over the role of family-father. During this period, the pattern of sustenance changed, increased and stagnated, in relation to the family-fathers phases in life. In combination with aggregated data from authorities the farmer diary of Tomtas farm has been used for detailed accounts on the economic every-day of the household. The study suggests that the farmer household adjusted its production and used the growing commercial life of the parish for further refinement of its own resources. This process was expressed in the one-sided recruitment of female peasants for animal products, which traditionally had been conducted by women. The households lifecycle has, based on this study, not explained the extent of market adjustment. Still, there are indicators that lifecycle related conflicts did influence the patterns of sustenance though its extent is hard to estimate. Methodological refinement is required to assess the importance of the family-father's lifecycle on the household's pattern of sustenance, particularly if a more detailed account is to be given on women’s work in late 19th century agriculture.

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Nagrinėjant darnaus vystymosi problemas, iki šiol buvo akcentuojamas gamybos poveikis aplinkai ir žmogui. Ir tik pastaruoju metu atkreiptas dėmesys, kad nuo vartojimo būdo ir jo pasirinkimo priklauso aplinkos būklė. Šiame darbe atlikome Lietuvos gyventojų pajamų ir vartojimo apimties bei struktūros pokyčių analizę 1996 – 2006 metais, įvertinome šių pokyčių galimą poveikį aplinkai bei galimybes pasiekti ES šalių senbuvių lygį. Darbui buvo naudojami Statistikos departamento prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės ir Europos Statistikos agentūros EUROSTAT duomenys. Apibendrinus tyrimų rezultatus nustatyta, kad Lietuvos bendrasis vidaus produktas pradėjo itin sparčiai augti nuo 2001 metų ir pastaraisiais metais auga beveik po 10 %., o gyventojų pajamos ir išlaidos pradėjo sparčiau augti tik nuo 2004 metų ir pastarųjų metų prieaugis siekia beveik 20 %. Per visą analizuojamą laikotarpį BVP padidėjo 2,7 karto, o disponuojamos pajamos ir vartojimo išlaidos - apie 2 kartus. Namų ūkių vidutinių vartojimo išlaidų santykis 1996 - 2006 metais tarp turtingiausių ir skurdžiausių namų ūkių beveik nekito ir skirtumas sudarė 8,7 - 8,9 karto ir yra žymiai didesnis nei ES šalyse senbuvėse (5-6 kartai). Lietuvos namų ūkių vartojimo išlaidų makro struktūroje vienam namų ūkio nariui per mėnesį nuo 1996 iki 2006 metų 4 kartus padidėjo išlaidos turizmui (25,40 Lt). Mažiausiai išaugo maistui ir gėrimams 1,1 karto (27,80 Lt). Tuo tarpu išlaidos transportui padidėjo 3,7 karto (49,10 Lt), būstui ir jo... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Ussualy analising sustainable development and environment problems the major focus is put on human and environmental impact of production. Recently more attention is paid to sustainable consumption and the environmental impact of consumption patterns. In this work changes of inhabitant’s income and expenditure dynamics and structure during 1996-2006 years in Lithuania is analyse. Possible impact of these changes to environment and Lithuanian possibility to reach the level of EU old members was estimated. For this analysis we used Lithuanian statistical department and European statistical agencies EUROSTAT data. Analysis shows that Lithuanian GDP was growing very fast from 2001 years and recently GDP was growth reached 10 % annually. Inhabitant incomes and expenditures have started growing just from 2004 years and incremented by 20 %. During the period under analysis GDP increase 2,7 times, but incomes and consumption expenditures – about 2 times. In 1996-2006 years household expenditures difference between rich and poor household inhabitant was stable and fluctuated about 8,7-8,9 times. While this indicator was 5-6 times in EU old members. Lithuanian household consumption expenditure per inhabitant per month for tourism increase 4 times (25,40 Lt) between 1996 and 2006 years. The minimum expenditures were for food and drink - 1,1 times (27,80 Lt), the expenditure for transport increase 3,7 times (49,10 Lt) and expenditure for accommodation 2 times (36,70 Lt). By the most... [to full text]

This thesis is based on eight articles all related to the characteristics of the cooling system and plate evaporator of a household refrigerator. Through these articles, knowledge is provided that can be used to increase the operational efficiency in household refrigeration. Papers A, B and C focus on heat transfer and pressure drop in a commonly used free convection evaporator – the plate evaporator. Applicable correlations are suggested on how to estimate the air side heat transfer, the refrigerant side pressure drop and the refrigerant side heat transfer. Papers D, E and F hold a unique experimental study of the refrigerant charge distribution in the cooling system at transient and steady state conditions. From this cyclic losses are identified and estimated and ways to overcome them are suggested. In paper G the topic “charging and throttling” is investigated in an unparalleled experimental study based on more than 600 data points at different quantities of charge and expansions device capacities. It results in recommendations on how to optimize the capillary tube length and the quantity of refrigerant charge. Finally, Paper H holds a thermographic study of the overall cooling system operating at transient conditions. Overall, a potential to lower the energy use by as much as 25 % was identified in the refrigerator studied. About 10 % was found on the evaporator’s air side. 1-2 % was identified as losses related to the edge effect of the evaporator plate. About 8 % was estimated to be cyclic losses. About 5 % was found in cycle length optimization.  It is believed that most of these findings are of general interest for the whole field of household refrigeration even though the results come from one type of refrigerator. Suggestions of simple means to reduce the losses without increasing the unit price are provided within the thesis / <p>QC 20120411</p>

<p>The purpose of this thesis is to investigate patterns in educational enrollment and attainment in educational levels among women in South Africa. Some evidence from the literature suggest a slow increase in women&rsquo / s education and employment opportunities in South Africa. However, little is known about the way in which this slow pattern reflects at all levels and fields of education with special reference to the female population in South Africa. The thesis aims at examining changes of attainment in women&rsquo / s education from a sociodemographic perspective between 2004 and 2007. Factors affecting women&rsquo / s education in South Africa are also considered as they play major roles in women&rsquo / s enrollment and completion at school. The study focuses on women through different social and demographic attributes, by taking account of variables such as age, education attainment, geographic areas, population group to name but a few. All educational institutions are covered and two female groups are considered, women at school and women who left school. The study makes use of already existing data from General Household Survey conducted in 2004 and 2007 respectively, to bring some comparative perspective. The scope of the study is national in that, all the nine provinces are covered making distinction of rural and urban areas.</p>

The objectives of this thesis were firstly, to review existing literature in order to identify broadly accepted and measurable indicators of the possible causes of poverty and the resulting symptoms. Secondly, to gather baseline information from a group of land reform beneficiaries in order to identify the different dimensions of poverty affecting the current and future well-being of these households. Thirdly, to undertake empirical analysis to assign these households to a small number of groups exhibiting different symptoms of poverty and then explain these differences in terms of their possible causes. A census survey of 38 land reform beneficiary households - members of a Communal Property Association (CPA) established to purchase Clipstone, a 630 hectare subdivision of the farm Sherwood in the midlands of KwaZulu-Natal - was conducted in May 2002 to gather data on poverty indicators. Principal Component Analysis was used to construct an index of the standard of housing, which was then combined with variables measuring other symptoms of poverty (income, wealth and health) in a Cluster Analysis of the households. This revealed five clusters representing four distinct groups of poverty; households relatively income and asset rich, income rich but asset poor, asset rich but income poor and households with the lowest incomes and assets. Linear Discriminant Analysis was then used to distinguish the households that were relatively income and asset "rich" from those that were relatively income and asset poor, and those that were relatively income poor but "asset rich" from those relatively asset poor but "income rich". The main distinguishing indicators were found to be gender of the household head, family size, dependency ratio, education and access to markets. These findings show that there is a need to increase child welfare grants as pension earnings become less effective (due to decreasing life expectancy and high levels of dependence on pensions as a source of income) in the short run. In the long run, there is a need for increased education and vocational training - especially for women along with better access to transport, jobs and banking facilities (to mobilise savings). / Thesis (M.Agric.Mgt.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

In this study, a household resilience score was developed as a measure of rural household resilience to identify households with low resilience and to measure progress towards improved household resilience. Resilience is the ability of households to cope with risk. The motivation for the study originated from the first objective of the Framework of African Food Security (FAFS) of improved household risk management, and the indicator of progress towards this objective – proposed by the FAFS - a resilience score. A review of the literature indicated that the assets owned by a household could be used as a proxy for resilience. The household component of the Demographic and Health Surveys for six African countries was used to develop and apply the resilience score. The score was estimated using an index of assets owned by the household and information regarding household access to certain services and characteristics of the dwelling. There is disagreement in the literature concerning the best method of constructing an asset index in terms of how to weight the variables included in the index. As a result, four methods of constructing an index of socio-economic status (SES) were selected for comparison in this study: two linear principal component analysis (PCA) techniques; a non-linear or categorical principal component analysis (CATPCA) method; and a simple sum of assets technique. The results from the application of each of the four indices to the country data and the resulting classification of households into quintiles of SES were compared across several assessment criteria. No single method out-performed the others across all the assessment criteria. However, the CATPCA method performed better in terms of the proportion of variance explained by the first principal component and the stability of the solution. The results showed that for all methods, SES was not evenly distributed across the sample populations for the countries analysed. This violates the assumption of uniformity implied when using quintiles as classification cut-off points. As an alternate to the quintile split cluster analysis was applied to the SES scores derived for each country. The classification of households into SES groups was repeated using k-means cluster analysis of the household SES scores estimated by the CATPCA method for each country. The results showed that a greater proportion of households fell into relatively lower levels of SES, which is in contrast to the assumption of uniformity of SES made when using the quintile cut-off approach. Cluster analysis better reflected the clustered nature of the household data analysed in this study, compared to the quintile cut-off method. In a final analysis, the index of SES along with k-means cluster analysis was applied to household data from two different time periods for five African countries to determine whether the resilience measure was able to detect changes in household SES between the two periods and, therefore, whether the tool could be used to monitor changes in household resilience over time. The results showed evidence of adjustments in SES over time: there were differences in the per cent of households allocated to the clusters of SES between the two periods. Using the CATPCA index and k-means cluster analysis, Egypt, Uganda and Mali showed an increase in the per cent of 'poor' households, while for Kenya and Tanzania there was a reduction in the per cent of households allocated to the first cluster between time periods: the decrease for Kenya from 2003 to 2008 was as much as 13 percentage points. The observed changes in SES were then compared to changes in national poverty estimates reported in the literature. The resilience score developed in the study displayed an ability to track changes in household SES over time and could be used as a measure of progress towards improved household resilience. As such, the resilience measure could be valuable to policy-makers for monitoring the impacts of policies aimed at improving household resilience. Future research is recommended before the reliability of the resilience measure developed here can be fully ascertained. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

This study describes the characteristics of informal economy workers and their households. The central reasons for initiating the study were twofold. Firstly, the informal economy has grown in size and it is increasingly recognised as an important component of the economy. Secondly, it is widely agreed that accurate measurement of the informal economy has not been achieved. Thus, the study aimed to describe the informal economy using the most up-to-date national labour force survey as well as assess how accurately the informal economy has been measured with that instrument. The informal economy has developed as a result of globalisation and the technological revolution (amongst other factors) according to researchers. Recognition that workers within the informal economy (and those subject to informalisation within the formal economy) are not achieving fair labour standards has led to efforts to re-conceptualise work. The informal economy is extremely difficult to define and four conceptual models are described in this study. Each of the models agrees that the informal economy operates outside the ambit of formal activities, thus a form of dualism is defined, and that the economy is heterogeneous in character. The models differ in how the informal economy interrelates with the formal economy; the dualist model proposes there is no interaction while the legalist model states that a superior-subordinate relationship exists between the two. Competing models view the informal economy as either survivalist or as a vibrant, productive entity. A notable characteristic of the informal economy is flexibility in working conditions. This study will contribute to debate on the nature and measurement of the informal economy in South Africa. The method used in this study was secondary analysis of the Labour Force Survey. Integrating elements of theory and measurement, it is suggested that the design of the survey instrument reinforces the dualist model. Analysis revealed that different economies - formal and informal - occur and that, although the two are not mutually exclusive, these exhibit markedly different characteristics. The formal worker and his or her household showed significantly better statistics for a range of demographic, social and economic indicators. Formal employees enjoyed better quality employment relationships than informal workers, as demonstrated by higher proportions in permanent employment and longer duration of employment. Measurement of an interrelationship between the formal and informal economies was hampered by the design of the survey instrument, however, there is evidence that a relationship does exist and this was defined as superior-subordinate in nature. The heterogeneous nature of the informal economy was confirmed by example of a wide range of occupations, involving varied levels of skill. Generally, the South African informal economy appears to be survivalist in nature, as demonstrated by high frequencies of workers in occupations of low skill as well as by the general poverty and low standard of living exhibited by the informal workers' household. It was recognised that there are categories of worker who are worse off than the informal worker and this finding, along with the observation that disparities exist between different types of worker within the informal economy itself, raises the question of how useful it is to use the dualist framework for analysis. Informal workers did report higher levels of flexibility, however, it is argued that this would not compensate for poor statistics recorded for nearly all other indicators measured. Based on the analysis above, it is suggested that the informal worker 'formalise' if this path is made possible because it is clear that formal workers achieve a significantly better standard of living. In the long term this goal could be achieved by improving education levels and by facilitating access to the formal economy. In the short to medium term the outlook for the informal worker could be improved by adopting policies that foster improved work conditions, including improved access to medical aid, paid leave, and some form of pension or retirement plan. The study concludes that measurement of the informal economy is more accurate than past attempts, but that further improvement is possible. Given the disparities within the informal work force and the idea that a dualist approach is not the most effective conceptualisation of the labour force, the study calls for a flexible survey instrument that caters for various definitions of the informal worker. The inclusion of additional questions, for example to measure workers' perceptions of exploitation and satisfaction with working conditions, is encouraged. These suggestions would facilitate effective investigation of alternative conceptualisations of the informal economy through means of the survey instrument. / Thesis (M.Dev. Studies)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Relationships between „madams‟ and „maids‟ have been the subject of various South African works, detailing the lives of domestic workers and their daily struggles. This study however aims to turn the focus on the madam and questions the complex intimacy at work between her and her maid. It is this intricate association between „madam‟ and „maid,‟ as well as the context of the home, which creates a site for a unique personal relationship that extends beyond the constraints of the working contract. In order to investigate this relationship, I explore the preconceived notions Muslim madams of North Beach have when recruiting the ideal domestic worker as well as the way everyday life between madams and maids shapes their relationship. In demonstrating the types of relationships and levels of intimacy between them, this thesis focuses on three aspects of everyday life between Muslim madams and maid. Firstly, I explore the „home‟ as a contradictory location – being both a private space for the employer and a workspace for the maid, paying particular attention to the creation of boundaries and negotiations of space within the home. The second key aspect I examine is the extent to which religion influences the relationship between madam and maid. Religion is a thread running through this thesis as a determining factor in the recruitment of a domestic worker and a way in which space is produced. Thirdly, I discuss the sharing of gender between madam and maid and the question of „sisterhood‟ between them. These are underlying elements of the types of relationships between madam and maid which, I argue are characterised by levels of cultivated intimacy. The project is based on the qualitative results gathered from 20 in-depth interviews with Muslim madams, two focus groups and five key informant interviews with domestic workers. My thesis contributes to the existing research exploring the relationships between madams and maids and opens further avenues for research. It demonstrates that there are key elements besides race and class that shape the relationships between madam and maid, which contribute to levels of cultivated intimacy between them. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sci.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.