Avec l’évolution du Consensus de Washington comme fil conducteur, nous montrons que la gouvernance est partie à la reconquête de son caractère politique, caractère que les tenants du « tout marché » lui avaient retiré. Une fois le constat établi d’une gouvernance désormais démocratique, nous analysons les indicateurs produits pour la quantifier. Ces indicateurs sont en majorité des indices de perceptions, ils demeurent imparfaits, parfois biaisés.En nous intéressant à la mesure de la corruption, nous avons mis à jour l’existence d’un biais que nous qualifions de réflectif ou médiatique. La liberté de la presse joue un rôle important sur les perceptions. Nous suggérons que l’indice de perception de la corruption produit par Transparency International pénalise les jeunes démocraties. L’ouverture des médias et une liberté de la presse grandissante, en mettant à jour les actes de corruption jusqu’alors non révélés, influencent les experts de Transparency International qui ont tendance à dégrader leur notation.Récemment, un nouvel outil est apparu pour mesurer la qualité institutionnelle. Si les enquêtes menées auprès des ménages ne sont pas nouvelles en tant que telles, leur systématisation ouvre de nombreuses perspectives. En utilisant le Gallup World Poll nous avons été en mesure d’observer le ressenti des populations concernant la corruption, et ce, à une échelle encore inédite. Nous avons alors été en mesure de comparer les perceptions des ménages à celles des experts. Nous avons alors identifié les déterminants de ces écarts et montré l’influence de facteurs comme la liberté de la presse, la nature du régime politique ou encore la confiance envers les gouvernements. / With Washington Consensus as leit motiv, we show that governance ultimately reaffirmed its political nature which “whole market” supporters tried to eradicate. Once established the now democratic nature of governance, we study the indicators produced to evaluate it. These indexes are mostly perceptions indicators. Thus, they remain unperfected, sometimes biased.Focusing on corruption measurement, we uncovered a media or reflective bias. Press freedom plays an important role on perceptions. We suggest that the Corruption Perception Index, provided by Transparency International (TI) penalizes young democracies. Media aperture, broadcasting corruption deeds so far unrevealed, likely influences TI experts that consequently deteriorate their notations.Recently, a new tool appears to assess institutional quality. If household surveys are not brand new, their systematization opens new perspectives. Using Gallup Worl Poll, we were able to observe population’s feeling towards corruption at a global scale. Thus, we were able to compare population’s and expert’s perceptions. We then identified this gap determinants and put the light on the influence of press freedom, political organization or leadership approval.

<p>This thesis contains four different studies on the dynamics of gender in households and workplaces. The relationship between family life and work life is in focus, particularly in the paper on labour market outcomes after divorce.</p><p>In the introductory chapter, the Swedish context is briefly described. The description focuses on gender differences in the labour market and in the home. Theories concerning the division of work in the household are discussed, as are two theories on labour market discrimination, viz. taste discrimination and statistical discrimination. The theory part is concluded with a discussion of social closure processes and gendered organizational structures.</p><p><i>The Reproduction of Gender. Housework and Attitudes Towards Gender Equality in the Home Among Swedish Boys and Girls.</i> The housework boys and girls age 10 to 18 do, and their attitudes towards gender equality in the home are studied. One aim is to see whether the work children do is gendered and if so, whether they follow their parents’, often gendered, pattern in housework. A second aim is to see whether parents’ division of work is related to the children’s attitude towards gender equality in the home. The data used are taken from the Swedish Child Level of Living Survey (Child-LNU) 2000. Results indicate that girls and boys in two-parent families are more prone to engage in gender-atypical work the more their parent of the same sex engages in this kind of work. The fact that girls still do more housework than boys indicates that housework is gendered work also among children. No relation between parents’ division of work and the child’s attitude towards gender equality in the home was found. </p><p><i>Dependence within Families and the Household Division of Labor – A Comparison between Sweden and the United States.</i> This paper assesses the relative explanatory value of the resource-bargaining perspective and the doing-gender approach in analysing the division of housework in the United States and Sweden from the mid-1970s to 2000. Data from the Swedish Level of Living Survey (LNU) and the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) were used. Overall results indicate that housework is truly gendered work in both countries during the entire period. Even so, the results also indicate that gender deviance neutralization is more pronounced in the United States than in Sweden. Unlike Swedish women, American women seem to increase their time spent in housework when their husbands are to some extent economically dependent on them, as if to neutralize the presumed gender deviance.</p><p><i>Divorce and Labour Market Outcomes. Do Women Suffer or Gain?</i> In this paper, the interconnected nature of work and family is studied by looking at labour market outcomes after divorce. The data used are retrospective work and family histories collected in LNU 1991. A hazard regression model with competing risks reveals that women’s chances of improving their occupational prestige appear to be better after divorce compared to before. Increased working hours and perhaps also increased energy invested in the job may pay off in better occupational opportunities. Worth noting, however, is that the outcome among women with a less firm labour market attachment is more often to a job of lower prestige than one of higher prestige. Hence, the labour market outcome for women after divorce is to some extent conditioned by their labour market attachment at the time of divorce. Men, on the other hand, in most cases seem to suffer occupationally from divorce. For separated men the risk of negative changes in occupational prestige is greater than for cohabiting men.</p><p><i>Formal On-the-job Training. A Gender-Typed Experience and Wage- Related Advantage?</i> Formal on-the-job training (FOJT) can have a positive impact on wages and on promotion opportunities. According to theory and earlier research, a two-step model of gender inequality in FOJT is predicted: First, women are less likely than men to take part in FOJT and, second, once women do get the more remunerative training, they are not rewarded for their new skills to the same extent as men are. Pooled cross-sectional data from the Swedish Survey of Living Conditions (ULF) in the mid-nineties were used. Results show that women are significantly less likely than men to take part in FOJT. Among those who do receive training, women are more likely to take part in industry-specific training, whereas men are more likely to participate in general training and training that increases promotion opportunities. The two latter forms of training significantly raise a man’s annual earnings but not a woman’s. Hence, the theoretical model is supported and it is argued that this gender inequality is partly due to employers’ discriminatory practices.</p>

<p>This study deals with the intergenerational coresidence during the nineteenth century. The main focus is placed on the possible differences in the coresidences among parents and children and whether demographic transition and industrialization changed this relation. Were parents and children living in the same household? It was also important to study the children network; if the children did not live with their parents, where did they live? In the neighbourhoods, in the parish or in another area? Two perspectives were mainly considered, industrialization and demographic transition. On one hand industrialization gave children the opportunity to work outside the parental household and consequently the relationship between parents and children probably became weaker. On the other hand the fall of infant mortality would have facilitated the creation of a new complex household. Did industrialization with a new labour market change in decline the coresidence among parents and children? Or did the fall of mortality increase the number of coresidences? Two more factors influenced the coresidences, social status of the first generation and number of children born. The area of study is the region of Sundsvall, situated in middle Sweden. During the nineteenth century this region experienced a fall of infant mortality and in the middle of the century the introduction of steam-sawmills started and it arrived to be one of the largest sawmill districts at the world in the end of the century. The cohort chosen regarded people born between 1770 and 1820 and they lived their old age in the Sundsvall district. The first methodological approach is cross-sectional and analyses the entire cohort. The second method is a longitudinal analysis of a micro study of 135 people. The results show the decrease of the coresidences between the two generations when parents were 80 years old. In the previous years no difference has been found between the preindustrial and industrial period, thus the decline of mortality did not help the increase of coresidences. Social status was the most determinant factor for the creation of coresidence. People employed in agriculture, peasants and crofters were more likely to coreside with married children compared to the workers’ groups. Social difference increases with the industrialization, workers experienced the decline of coresidence in a stronger way compared to the others groups. The number of children born from the first generation helps in a marginal way the creation of coresidences. The main difference was between one or more children born, but no differences were found among those people who had two children or more. The micro study put in evidence the life cycle of the family. Peasants and crofters were the most likely to experience the cycle of the stem family. However the coresidence could be interrupted by the death or the migration of the family members. Other alternatives as the presences of children in the neighbourhoods or the coresidence with unmarried children were noticed. Finally, the study showed that sons were more likely to live with their parents compared to daughters but in one third of the cases the first generation constituted the stem family with a daughter.</p>

<p>This thesis consists of four papers: two of them deal with the relationship between consumption, energy taxation, and emissions on macro level, and two of them focuses on the effects of changes in consumption and income on the environmental quality on a micro level.</p><p>The main objective of paper [I] is to examine how exogenous technological progress, in terms of an increase in energy efficiency, affects consumption choice by Swedish households and thereby emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx). The aim of the paper is closely related to the discussion of what is known as the “rebound effect”. To neutralise the rebound effect, we estimate the necessary change in CO2 tax, i.e. the CO2 tax that keeps CO2 emissions at their initial level. In addition, we estimate how this will affect emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. The results indicate that an increase in energy efficiency of 20 percent will increase emissions of CO2 by approximately 5 percent. To reduce the CO2 emissions to their initial level, CO2 tax must be raised by 130 percent. This tax increase will reduce the emissions of sulphur dioxide to below their initial level, but will leave the emissions of nitrogen oxides at a higher level than initially.</p><p>One of the premises implied in paper [II] is that the changes in consumer prices, as a result of changes in environmental taxes, may send a different signal to the consumer compared with other changes in consumer prices, such as changes in producer price. In addition, this assumed difference in the signaling effect of the changes in environmental taxes, compared to changes in the producer price, may also differ between different commodities. To achieve the objectives a system of demand functions for Swedish households is estimated. To test for the signalling effect of environmental taxes the consumer price for energy goods is partitioned into a producer price part and a tax part.</p><p>In Paper [III], we estimate the income elasticity of demand for recreational services and other traditional groups of goods in Sweden and we test for potential changes in such estimates over the twentieth century. The paper uses Swedish household surveys for the years 1913, 1984, 1988, and 1996. Because of the difficulty of directly observing the demand for recreational services, we employ an indirect methodology by using the demand for some outdoor goods as proxies for the recreational services demand.</p><p>In paper [IV], we investigate the relationship between pollution and income at the household level. Here we want to investigate, and hence contribute to the existing literature, under what conditions concerning individual preferences and the link between consumption and pollution a linear relationship are to be expected, but also to empirically assess the relationship. To achieve our objective we formulate a model determining different type of households’ choice of consumption for goods. Furthermore we link the demand model to emission functions for the various goods. The results from the empirical analysis show that, at least in a close neighbourhood of observed income/pollution, we can reject linearity for all three types of pollutions, CO2, SO2, and NOx. According to our results the pollution/income relationships are all strictly concave. Thus the implication is that the income distribution seems to matter in the sense that equalization of income will lead to higher emissions. Furthermore it is shown that the slope as well as the curvature differs between different types of households, which means that preferences differ across households.</p>

<p>This thesis investigates help-seeking and effects of help-seeking on causal attributions for helping (i.e., what people believe caused help or lack of help). Additionally, it examines self-serving and other-serving attributions (i.e., to augment a person's positive sides and diminish the negative ones). Help-seeking was investigated in questionnaires, describing situations where spouses collaborate in doing household chores. A first study showed that women and men report using direct styles (i.e., explicitly verbalising the requests) more often than indirect ones. A second study showed that spouses inaccurately believe that wives in general would report more indirect and less direct styles than husbands in general. Causal attributions for helping were investigated in four studies with different methods, settings, and types of relationships (questionnaires, laboratory experiment; spouses doing chores, students and strangers doing computerized exercises). Consistent support was obtained for a predicted interaction between helping and the clarity of the request for help in determining the attributions. It is suggested that this finding is an effect of people comparing the behavior of one person with their beliefs about how other persons behave (i.e., consensus). Additionally, the findings did not support the claims that people make self-serving attributions and that the latter would be more pronounced among men than women. However, the attributions were other-serving. The thesis gives a novel understanding of everyday life by combining the issues of help-seeking and causal attributions. It also offers a discussion of the previous literature and of theoretical and applied implications of the findings.</p>

<p>The challenge for the future was defined by the Brundtland Commission (1987) and by the Rio Declaration (1992), in which the fundamental principles for achieving a sustainable development were provided. Sustainable chemistry can be defined as the contribution of chemistry to the implementation of the Rio Declaration. This thesis shows how Pressurized Fluid Extraction (PFE) can be utilized in chemical analysis, and how this correlates to Green Chemistry.</p><p>The reliability and efficiency of the PFE technique was investigated for a variety of analytes and matrices. Applications discussed include: the extraction of the antioxidant Irganox 1076 from linear low density polyethylene, mobile forms of phosphorus in lake sediment, chlorinated paraffins from source-separated household waste, general analytical method for pesticide residues in rape seed, total lipid content in cod muscle, and squalene in olive biomass. Improved or comparable extraction yields were achieved with reduced time and solvent consumption. The decrease in use of organic solvents was 50-90%, resulting in minimal volatile organic compounds emissions and less health-work problem. Due to higher extraction temperatures and more efficient extractions, the selection of solvent is not as important as at lower temperatures, which makes it possible to choose less costly, more environmentally and health beneficial solvents. In general, extraction times are reduced to minutes compared to several hours. As a result of the very short extraction times, the amount of co-extracted material is relatively low, resulting in fewer clean-up step and much shorter analysis time. Selective extractions could be obtained by varying the solvent or solvent mixture and/or using adsorbents. </p><p>In this thesis, the PFE technique was compared to the twelve principles of Green Chemistry, and it was shown that it follows several of the principles, thus giving a major contribution to sustainable chemistry. </p>

Résumé Considérée par la Vision 2020 du Rwanda comme premier moteur de croissance économique et de réduction de la pauvreté, lagriculture rwandaise se prépare à rentrer dans une phase de mutations profondes de transformation et de modernisation de ses systèmes de production de subsistance pour souvrir au marché. Pour passer dune agriculture de subsistance à une agriculture commerciale, beaucoup denjeux et de contraintes du secteur agricole, variant et ne se faisant pas sentir avec la même acuité, dune région à une autre, méritent dêtre identifiés et analysés avant de passer à laction. Pour appréhender le sujet une étude documentaire détaillée a été réalisée sur la zone et sur le contexte agricole rwandais en général suivie dune série denquêtes sur terrain. Celles-ci reposent sur un échantillonnage raisonné de 4 secteurs (deux de basse altitude et deux de haute altitude) représentatifs de la diversité agro-bioclimatique et socioéconomique de la région dans chacun des deux districts de la zone de GIKONGORO. Tenant compte du nombre dunités de production présentes dans chaque secteur, les ménages ont été aléatoirement choisis dans les 8 secteurs retenus de manière à atteindre un effectif de 210 unités de production, pour recueillir leurs opinions sur les contraintes rencontrées, leurs stratégies de production et leurs desiderata en lien avec ce que les services agricoles conduisaient. Les problèmes relevés sont nettement complexes et semblent avoir pour facteur-racine la rupture de léquilibre « ressources naturelles/population », principal risque pour la croissance économique à long terme et la lutte contre la pauvreté. Le premier constat de cette étude est que les mutations démographiques, économiques, sociales ou culturelles qui ont affecté, depuis des décennies la zone de GIKONGORO, nont pas pu parallèlement, induire une dynamique organisationnelle qui se traduirait aussi par le développement et le renforcement des capacités des paysans et des organisations interpellées par les nouveaux enjeux du développement rural. Sur le plan agronomique, la principale contrainte sur laquelle convergent toutes les préoccupations des agriculteurs, est celui dun appauvrissement critique des sols. Celui-ci est principalement dû à une surexploitation des terres liée aux faibles superficies disponibles, aux difficultés dextension des terres de culture et à lincapacité des agriculteurs qui, faute de moyens, ne peuvent restituer au sol ce que les cultures exportent. Les pâturages naturels nétant plus disponibles en plus de la faible production fourragère dans la zone, la taille des troupeaux a sensiblement diminué et la production du fumier est faible. Sur des sols naturellement pauvres, érodés et très acides de GIKONGORO, le facteur limitant de la production agricole est avant tout la quantité de la fumure organique disponible sans laquelle tout investissement dans lamélioration de la fertilité des terres ne constitue quun gaspillage économique. Sur le plan de fonctionnement socioéconomique, les résultats de ce travail révèlent que 39% des exploitations sont très pauvres, procurent des revenus relativement inférieurs au seuil de reproduction et au seuil de survie pour certaines dentre elles et présentent une tendance générale à la régression. Evaluées à 47%, les exploitations à dominance agriculture procurent des revenus légèrement supérieurs au seuil de reproduction et montrent une tendance à la stagnation et se reproduisent à lidentique. Seulement 14% des exploitations de GIKONGORO sont en développement. Soutenues par des ressources extérieurs, elles produisent des revenus nettement supérieurs au seuil daccumulation. Elles ont des capacités dinvestissement relativement importantes et présentent une tendance générale à lélargissement.

This thesis consists of four papers: two of them deal with the relationship between consumption, energy taxation, and emissions on macro level, and two of them focuses on the effects of changes in consumption and income on the environmental quality on a micro level. The main objective of paper [I] is to examine how exogenous technological progress, in terms of an increase in energy efficiency, affects consumption choice by Swedish households and thereby emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx). The aim of the paper is closely related to the discussion of what is known as the “rebound effect”. To neutralise the rebound effect, we estimate the necessary change in CO2 tax, i.e. the CO2 tax that keeps CO2 emissions at their initial level. In addition, we estimate how this will affect emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. The results indicate that an increase in energy efficiency of 20 percent will increase emissions of CO2 by approximately 5 percent. To reduce the CO2 emissions to their initial level, CO2 tax must be raised by 130 percent. This tax increase will reduce the emissions of sulphur dioxide to below their initial level, but will leave the emissions of nitrogen oxides at a higher level than initially. One of the premises implied in paper [II] is that the changes in consumer prices, as a result of changes in environmental taxes, may send a different signal to the consumer compared with other changes in consumer prices, such as changes in producer price. In addition, this assumed difference in the signaling effect of the changes in environmental taxes, compared to changes in the producer price, may also differ between different commodities. To achieve the objectives a system of demand functions for Swedish households is estimated. To test for the signalling effect of environmental taxes the consumer price for energy goods is partitioned into a producer price part and a tax part. In Paper [III], we estimate the income elasticity of demand for recreational services and other traditional groups of goods in Sweden and we test for potential changes in such estimates over the twentieth century. The paper uses Swedish household surveys for the years 1913, 1984, 1988, and 1996. Because of the difficulty of directly observing the demand for recreational services, we employ an indirect methodology by using the demand for some outdoor goods as proxies for the recreational services demand. In paper [IV], we investigate the relationship between pollution and income at the household level. Here we want to investigate, and hence contribute to the existing literature, under what conditions concerning individual preferences and the link between consumption and pollution a linear relationship are to be expected, but also to empirically assess the relationship. To achieve our objective we formulate a model determining different type of households’ choice of consumption for goods. Furthermore we link the demand model to emission functions for the various goods. The results from the empirical analysis show that, at least in a close neighbourhood of observed income/pollution, we can reject linearity for all three types of pollutions, CO2, SO2, and NOx. According to our results the pollution/income relationships are all strictly concave. Thus the implication is that the income distribution seems to matter in the sense that equalization of income will lead to higher emissions. Furthermore it is shown that the slope as well as the curvature differs between different types of households, which means that preferences differ across households.

<p>The purpose of this thesis is to investigate patterns in educational enrollment and attainment in educational levels among women in South Africa. Some evidence from the literature suggest a slow increase in women&rsquo / s education and employment opportunities in South Africa. However, little is known about the way in which this slow pattern reflects at all levels and fields of education with special reference to the female population in South Africa. The thesis aims at examining changes of attainment in women&rsquo / s education from a sociodemographic perspective between 2004 and 2007. Factors affecting women&rsquo / s education in South Africa are also considered as they play major roles in women&rsquo / s enrollment and completion at school. The study focuses on women through different social and demographic attributes, by taking account of variables such as age, education attainment, geographic areas, population group to name but a few. All educational institutions are covered and two female groups are considered, women at school and women who left school. The study makes use of already existing data from General Household Survey conducted in 2004 and 2007 respectively, to bring some comparative perspective. The scope of the study is national in that, all the nine provinces are covered making distinction of rural and urban areas.</p>

This thesis investigates help-seeking and effects of help-seeking on causal attributions for helping (i.e., what people believe caused help or lack of help). Additionally, it examines self-serving and other-serving attributions (i.e., to augment a person's positive sides and diminish the negative ones). Help-seeking was investigated in questionnaires, describing situations where spouses collaborate in doing household chores. A first study showed that women and men report using direct styles (i.e., explicitly verbalising the requests) more often than indirect ones. A second study showed that spouses inaccurately believe that wives in general would report more indirect and less direct styles than husbands in general. Causal attributions for helping were investigated in four studies with different methods, settings, and types of relationships (questionnaires, laboratory experiment; spouses doing chores, students and strangers doing computerized exercises). Consistent support was obtained for a predicted interaction between helping and the clarity of the request for help in determining the attributions. It is suggested that this finding is an effect of people comparing the behavior of one person with their beliefs about how other persons behave (i.e., consensus). Additionally, the findings did not support the claims that people make self-serving attributions and that the latter would be more pronounced among men than women. However, the attributions were other-serving. The thesis gives a novel understanding of everyday life by combining the issues of help-seeking and causal attributions. It also offers a discussion of the previous literature and of theoretical and applied implications of the findings.