Muitas estratégias são indicadas a fim de suplantar a baixa permeabilidade de fármacos através da epiderme, umas delas, a de incluir promotores de penetração em formulações farmacêuticas e/ou cosméticas, formulados em sistemas terapêuticos transdérmicos (TTS). Estas substâncias são passíveis de modificar os domínios proteicos da epiderme e removerem provisoriamente a resistência da barreira do estrato córneo, permitindo o acesso dos fármacos aos tecidos viáveis através da circulação sistêmica. A natureza do veículo tópico é conhecida por desempenhar um papel importante na promoção da absorção dentro e através da pele. Os veículos tópicos convencionais, como pomadas, cremes ou géis, exercem predominantemente seus efeitos ao liberar o medicamento na superfície, e as moléculas dos fármacos, então, se difundem através de suas camadas. Os hidrogéis foram obtidos a partir de material polimérico reticulado por processo de radiação ionizante. A cafeína foi escolhida como substância modelo de permeação dérmica, por ser hidrofílica. Entretanto, para que a molécula penetre na barreira cutânea, deve ser associada a promotores de absorção cutânea. A papaína tem sido aplicada na pele íntegra como agente promotor de penetração e absorção cutânea. As enzimas interferem na absorção percutânea de fármacos por duas formas: como um potencializador de penetração e retardador de absorção. Neste trabalho, foram sintetizadas membranas de hidrogéis com poli (N-2- vinil - pirolidona) (PVP), poli (etilenoglicol) (PEG), poli (etilenoglicol diacrilato) (PEG-DA), cafeína e gel de papaína formado de polímero sintético pré-neutralizado para estudo da cinética de permeação cutânea, utilizando ecdise de cobra (Boa Constrictor) como membrana modelo de permeação. As membranas de hidrogel preparadas, foram caracterizadas por análise de termogravimetria (TG), calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC), intumescimento, fração gel, microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), e realizados ensaios de permeação dérmica em células de Franz e tomografia de coerência óptica (OCT). O teste de permeação \"in vitro\" desses hidrogéis na ecdise foram satisfatórios, comprovando a eficácia da papaína como promotora de permeação dérmica e contribuindo, assim, para futuros trabalhos que possam explorar ainda mais essa área de entrega de fármacos. / Many strategies are indicated for supplanting the low permeability of pharmaceuticals through the epidermis, one of them to include developers of access in cosmetics formulations, produced in Transdermal Drug Systems. Those substances are capable of modifying the protein dominates of the epidermis and temporarily remove the resistant barrier of the stratum cornea, allowing this way, the access to the pharmaceutical to the viable fabric through the systemic circulation. The nature of the topic vehicle is known for developing an important role of the absorption inside and through the skin. The conventional ways, as ointments, creams or gels, predominated theirs effects by liberating the medication in the superficies, so the pharmaceutical molecules defund beyond their layers. The hydrogels were got from the polymeric reticulate material for ionizing radiation process. The caffeine was chosen as a substance model of the dermis permeation, due to be hydrophilic. Moreover, for the molecule access, it is necessary to the developers of dermal absorption. The papain has been applied in the integra skin as agent promoter of access and dermal absorption. The enzymes interfere in the dermal absorption of the pharmaceutical in two forms: as optimizing, as well as, retarding absorption. This essay we could synthesized hydrogel membranes as Poly (N -2 - vinyl-pirolidon) (PVP), Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), Poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG-DA), caffeine and papain gel formed by polymeric synthetic pre-neutralized for the studies of kinetic of dermal access for using ecdysis of a snake (Boa constrictor) as a membrane model of access. The membranes of hydrogel prepared for this essay were characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), swelling, gel fraction, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and rehearsal of dermal access in Franz cells and optical coherence tomography (OCT). The test of permeation in vitro was satisfactory evidencing the efficacies of papain as a developer of dermal permeation, as well as, contributing for the future work that can explore even more this area of pharmaceutical delivery.

The field of tissue engineering has grown immensely since its inception in the late 1980s. However, currently commercialized tissue engineered products are simple in structure. This is due to a pre-clinical bottleneck in which complex tissues are unable to be fabricated. 3D bioprinting has become a versatile tool in engineering complex tissues and offers a solution to this bottleneck. Characterizing the mechanical properties of engineered tissue constructs provides powerful insight into the viability of engineered tissues for their desired application. Current methods of mechanical characterization of soft hydrogel materials used in tissue engineering destroy the sample and ignore the effect of 3D bioprinting on the overall mechanical properties of a construct. Herein, this work reports on the novel use of a non-destructive method of viscoelastic analysis to demonstrate the influence of 3D bioprinting strategy on mechanical properties of hydrogel tissue scaffolds. 3D bioprinting is demonstrated as a versatile tool with the ability to control mechanical and physical properties. Structure-function relationships are developed for common 3D bioprinting parameters such as printed fiber size, printed scaffold pattern, and bioink formulation. Further studies include effective real-time monitoring of crosslinking, and mechanical characterization of multi-material scaffolds. We envision this method of characterization opening a new wave of understanding and strategy in tissue engineering. / Graduate

Der Meniskus gleicht die Inkongruenz der beiden Gelenkpartner im Kniegelenk aus und führt somit zu einer Reduktion der Knorpelbelastung. Aufgrund der eingeschränkten Selbstheilungsfähigkeit des bradytrophen Meniskusgewebes bleibt bei Verletzung oft nur die operative Teilresektion als Therapie der Wahl. In dieser in vitro Untersuchung erfolgte die Implantation eines mit mesenchymalen (MSZ) Stammzellen beladenem Polylaktid-Kollagen-I-Hydrogel. Die MSZ zeigten eine in der Histologie und PCR nachgewiesene chondrogene Differenzierungspotenz innerhalb des Polylaktidkonstruktes. Innerhalb des Stanzdefektes konnte eine Anhaftung der MSZ an das Meniskusgewebe sowie die Ausbildung einer stabilen Kollagen-I-Matrix gezeigt werden. Die Arbeit stellt die Grundlage für eine spätere tierexperimentelle Studie dar. / The meniscus adjust the different shapes of the femor and Tibia and reduces the load of the articular cartilage. Because of his reduced regeneration rate, the meniscus often has to be partly removed in case of an injury. In this examination a polylactid-collagen I-hydrogel loaded with mesenchymal stem cells (msc) was implanted in the meniscus defect region. A chondral differentiation of the msc in the polylactid-construct was shown in the histology and a pcr-analysis was made. In the defect region the msc showed a near acclomeration to the meniscus tissue and a stable collagen-I-matrix was developed. The results are the base for a further examination in an animal model.

Articular cartilage defects are still one of the major challenges in orthopedic and trauma surgery. Today, autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT), as a cell-based therapy, is an established procedure. However, one major limitation of this technique is the loss of the chondrogenic phenotype during expansion. Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) have an extensive proliferation potential and the capacity to differentiate into chondrocytes when maintained under specific conditions. They are therefore considered as candidate cells for tissue engineering approaches of functional cartilage tissue substitutes. First in this study, hMSCs were embedded in a collagen type I hydrogel to evaluate the cartilaginous construct in vitro. HMSC collagen hydrogels cultivated in different culture media showed always a marked contraction, most pronounced in chondrogenic differentiation medium supplemented with TGF-ß1. After stimulation with chondrogenic factors (dexamethasone and TGF-ß1) hMSCs were able to undergo chondrogenesis when embedded in the collagen type I hydrogel, as evaluated by the temporal induction of cartilage-specific gene expression. Furthermore, the cells showed a chondrocyte-like appearance and were homogeneously distributed within a proteoglycan- and collagen type II-rich extracellular matrix, except a small area in the center of the constructs. In this study, chondrogenic differentiation could not be realized with every hMSC preparation. With the improvement of the culture conditions, e.g. the use of a different FBS lot in the gel fabrication process, a higher amount of cartilage-specific matrix deposition could be achieved. Nevertheless, the large variations in the differentiation capacity display the high donor-to-donor variability influencing the development of a cartilaginous construct. Taken together, the results demonstrate that the collagen type I hydrogel is a suitable carrier matrix for hMSC-based cartilage regeneration therapies which present a promising future alternative to ACT. Second, to further improve the quality of tissue-engineered cartilaginous constructs, mechanical stimulation in specific bioreactor systems are often employed. In this study, the effects of mechanical loading on hMSC differentiation have been examined. HMSC collagen hydrogels were cultured in a defined chondrogenic differentiation medium without TGF-ß1 and subjected to a combined mechanical stimulation protocol, consisting of perfusion and cyclic uniaxial compression. Bioreactor cultivation neither affected overall cell viability nor the cell number in collagen hydrogels. Compared with non-loaded controls, mechanical loading promoted the gene expression of COMP and biglycan and induced an up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinase 3. These results circumstantiate that hMSCs are sensitive to mechanical forces, but their differentiation to chondrocytes could not be induced. Further studies are needed to identify the specific metabolic pathways which are altered by mechanical stimulation. Third, for the development of new cell-based therapies for articular cartilage repair, a reliable cell monitoring technique is required to track the cells in vivo non-invasively and repeatedly. This study aimed at analyzing systematically the performance and biological impact of a simple and efficient labeling protocol for hMSCs. Very small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (VSOPs) were used as magnetic resonance (MR) contrast agent. Iron uptake was confirmed histologically with prussian blue staining and quantified by mass spectrometry. Compared with unlabeled cells, VSOP-labeling did neither influence significantly the viability nor the proliferation potential of hMSCs. Furthermore, iron incorporation did not affect the differentiation capacity of hMSCs. The efficiency of the labeling protocol was assessed with high resolution MR imaging at 11.7 Tesla. VSOP-labeled hMSCs were visualized in a collagen type I hydrogel indicated by distinct hypointense spots in the MR images, resulting from an iron specific loss of signal intensity. This was confirmed by prussian blue staining. In summary, this labeling technique has great potential to visualize hMSCs and track their migration after transplantation for articular cartilage repair with MR imaging. / Gelenkknorpeldefekte stellen immer noch eine der großen Herausforderungen in der Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie dar. Als zellbasiertes Verfahren ist die Autologe Chondrozytentransplantation (ACT) heute in der klinischen Routine etabliert. Ein großer Nachteil dieser Methode ist jedoch der Verlust des chondrozytären Phänotyps während der Expansion der Zellen. Humane mesenchymale Stammzellen (hMSZ) verfügen über ein ausgeprägtes Proliferationspotential und besitzen die Fähigkeit, unter spezifischen Bedingungen zu Knorpelzellen zu differenzieren. Sie werden daher als alternative Zellen für das Tissue Engineering von funktionellem Knorpelersatzgewebe in Betracht gezogen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden erstens hMSZ in ein Kollagen Typ I Hydrogel eingebracht und zunächst der Grad der chondrogenen Zelldifferenzierung im Konstrukt evaluiert. HMSZ-Kollagenhydrogele zeigten in allen Kultivierungsmedien eine deutliche Kontraktion, welche am stärksten im chondrogenen Differenzierungsmedium unter Zugabe von TGF-ß1 ausgeprägt war. Nach Stimulation mit chondrogenen Faktoren (Dexamethason und TGF-ß1) differenzierten hMSZ zu Knorpelzellen, nachgewiesen durch die Induktion von knorpelspezifischer Genexpression. Die Zellen wiesen eine Chondrozyten-ähnliche Morphologie auf und waren bis auf einen kleinen Bereich in der Mitte des Konstrukts homogen in einer Proteoglykan- und Kollagen Typ II-haltigen extrazellulären Matrix verteilt. Eine chondrogene Differenzierung konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit jedoch nicht mit jeder hMSZ-Präparation realisiert werden. Durch die Verbesserung der Kulturbedingungen, z.B. durch die Verwendung einer anderen Serumcharge im Gelherstellungsprozess, konnte eine Steigerung der knorpelspezifischen Matrixsynthese erzielt werden. Nichtsdestotrotz spiegeln die großen Schwankungen in der Differenzierungskapazität die hohe Variabilität zwischen verschiedenen Spendern wider, welche die Entwicklung eines knorpelartigen Gewebes beeinflussen. Zusammengefasst zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass das Kollagen Typ I Hydrogel eine geeignete Trägermatrix für hMSZ darstellt, um in Stammzell-basierten Knorpelregenerationstherapien zukünftig als vielversprechende Alternative zur ACT eingesetzt zu werden. Um die Qualität eines in vitro generierten knorpelartigen Gewebes weiter zu verbessern, wird häufig eine mechanische Stimulation in spezifischen Bioreaktorsystemen durchgeführt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden daher zweitens die Effekte von mechanischer Belastung auf die Differenzierung von hMSZ untersucht. HMSZ-Kollagenhydrogele wurden im chondrogenen Differenzierungsmedium ohne TGF-ß1 kultiviert und einem kombinierten mechanischen Stimulationsprotokoll, bestehend aus Perfusion und zyklischer uniaxialer Kompression, ausgesetzt. Die Kultivierung im Bioreaktor hatte weder einen Einfluss auf die Zellvitalität noch auf die Anzahl der Zellen im Kollagen Typ I Hydrogel. Die mechanische Beeinflussung steigerte im Vergleich mit den unbelasteten Kontrollgelen die Genexpression von COMP und Biglykan und führte zu einer Hochregulation von Matrix Metalloproteinase 3. Diese Ergebnisse belegen, dass hMSZ mechanosensitiv sind, jedoch konnte keine Differenzierung zu Knorpelzellen induziert werden. Hierfür sind weitere Studien notwendig, um spezifische Stoffwechselwege zu identifizieren, welche durch die mechanische Stimulation beeinflusst werden. Drittens, für die Entwicklung von neuen zellbasierten Therapien für die Gelenkknorpelrekonstruktion ist eine zuverlässige Bildgebung auf zellulärer Ebene erforderlich, um die Zellen in vivo wiederholt nicht invasiv zu detektieren. Die vorliegende Arbeit hatte zum Ziel, systematisch die Effizienz und die biologischen Auswirkungen einer einfachen und dauerhaften Markierung für hMSZ zu untersuchen. Superparamagnetische Eisenoxidnanopartikel (VSOPs), ein Magnetresonanz (MR)-Kontrastmittel, wurden für die Markierung eingesetzt. Die Aufnahme der Eisenoxidnanopartikel wurde histologisch mittels eisenspezifischer Berliner-Blau-Färbung nachgewiesen und durch Massenspektroskopie quantifiziert. Im Vergleich zu unmarkierten Zellen beeinträchtigte die VSOP-Markierung weder die Vitalität noch das Proliferationspotential der hMSZ. Weiterhin war durch die Aufnahme der Eisenoxidnanopartikel keine Beeinflussung der Differenzierungskapazität der hMSZ zu verzeichnen. Die Effizienz der Zellmarkierung wurde mittels hochauflösender MR-Bildgebung bei 11,7 Tesla beurteilt. VSOP-markierte hMSZ im Kollagen Typ I Hydrogel erschienen als hypointense Punkte in den MR-Bildern, hervorgerufen durch die typische, VSOP-bedingte Signalauslöschung. Histologische Untersuchungen dieser Konstrukte bestätigten die MR-Ergebnisse. Zusammenfassend lässt sich festhalten, dass diese Zellmarkierungsmethode in Verbindung mit der MR-Bildgebung über das Potential verfügt, nach einer Gelenkknorpelrekonstruktion Aufschluss über die Lokalisation und Migration der transplantierten hMSZ zu liefern.

Für die Rekonstruktion von Gelenkknorpeldefekten des Kniegelenkes in Folge eines Traumas oder einer Osteochondrosis dissecans (OD) stehen verschiedene operative Verfahren zur Verfügung. Die Autologe Chondrozytentransplantation (ACT) hat sich als zuverlässiges Rekonstruktionsverfahren erwiesen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde eine prospektive Fallseriestudie für eine neue Form der ACT mit einem Kollagen I Hydrogel (CaReS-Technologie) durchgeführt. Die Vorteile der Technologie liegen zum Einen darin, dass sich die Zellen homogen im Gel verteilen und zum Anderen, dass die Zellen unmittelbar nach dem Herauslösen aus dem Gelenkknorpel in das Gel eingebracht werden und dadurch eine geringere Dedifferenzierung der Chondrozyten stattfindet. Von März 2003 bis Ende 2006 wurden 29 Patienten in die Studie eingeschlossen. Die Ein- und Ausschlusskriterien erfüllten die Kriterien der Arbeitsgruppe ACT und Tissue Engineering der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie. Die Eingangs- und Nachuntersuchungsbögen wurden an die IKDC Form 2000 angelehnt. Insgesamt zeigte sich ein signifikanter Anstieg des IKDC Scores im mittleren follow-up von 30,7 Monaten von 47,3 auf 74,9 bei den 29 Patienten. Bei Aufschlüsselung der Patienten bzgl. Diagnose, Defektgröße, Lokalisation und Defektanzahl zeigte sich bei den Behandlungsgruppen OD, Trauma/degenerativ, > 4 cm2, mediale Femurkondyle und Einzeldefekte eine signifikante Zunahme des IKDC Scores im zeitlichen Verlauf. Der postoperative Schmerz zeigte einhergehend mit dem Anstieg des IKDC Scores eine signifikante Abnahme der Schmerzintensität in den Behandlungsgruppen OD, Trauma/degenerativ, > 4 cm2, mediale Femurkondyle und Einzeldefekte. Nachgewiesen wurde ebenfalls ein Anstieg des SF36 Scores, der den gegenwärtigen Gesundheitszustand sowohl körperlich als auch psychisch beurteilt. Zusammen mit einer globalen Patientenzufriedenheit von 80% und einem IKDC Funktionsstatus von I und II bei 77% der Patienten spiegeln die gewonnenen Daten die Ergebnisse der klassischen ACT bzw. anderer matrixgekoppelten Verfahren wieder. Die CaReS-Technologie stellt somit ein gleichwertiges Verfahren zu den bisher auf dem Markt befindlichen Techniken der ACT dar. / For the reconstruction of articular cartilage defects of the knee resulting from osteochondritis dissecans (OD) or trauma different surgical techgniques are available. Autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) has proven to be a reliable reconstructive technique. In this work, we have performed a prospective case control study using a new form of ACI with a collagen type I hydrogel (CaReS-technology). The advantages of the technology are that the cells can be distributed homogeneously within the hydrogel and immidiatly after their release from the cartilage they are brought into the gel, resulting in less dedifferentiation of the chondrocytes. From March 2003 to the end of 2006 we enrolled 29 patients in this study. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were adopted from the criteria of the working group for ACT and Tissue Engineereing of the German Society for Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery. The inital clinical and follow-up examinations were performed according to the IKDC form 2000. In general, we found a significant increase of the IKDC score at the follow-up of 30.7 months from 47.3 to 74.9 of the 29 patients. When seperating the patients by diagnosis, defect size, defect location and defect number we found in the groups with OD, trauma/degenerativ, > 4 cm2, medial condyle and single defects a significant increase of the IKDC score over the follow-up period. The postoperative pain showed accoring to the increased IKDC score a significant decrease of the pain intensity in the groups with OD, trauma/degenerativ, > 4 cm2, medial condyle and single defects. We also found an increase of the SF36 score, which describes the current physical and mental health status. Together with a global patient satisfaction of 80% and an IKDC functional status of I and II in 77% of the patients our data reflect the results of the classical ACI, as well as other matrix-based technologies. Therefore, the CaReS-technology is comparable to other technologies which are currently on the market.

The objective of this research was to study the adsorption and photodegradation of crystal violet (CV) dye by using poly(2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) (PHEMA) hydrogel and nanocomposite TiO2-PHEMA hydrogel. Since the TiO2 nanoparticle has poor solubility, another goal of this study was to make a uniform TiO2 nanocomposite gel. These gels can be used in water treatment and can be easily photodegrade by exposure of sunlight which is similar to exposing to UV-vis. PHEMA was synthesized by free radical polymerization. The nanocomposite gels were characterized by FT-IR and XRD to confirm the presence of TiO2 nanoparticles and CV dye inside the PHEMA hydrogel. The XRD data showed that not only maintaining the crystallinity of the three different phases that had been used, but also the uptake of the dye inside the nanocomposite gels. Moreover, the FT-IR demonstrated the presence of the functional groups of the chemical structure of the gel as well as the nanocomposite gels with the CV dye. The adsorption of CV dye was examined through monitoring UV-Vis absorption. The kinetic study indicated the adsorption of the dye by the nanocomposite gels until reached equilibrium, which is the zero concentration. The photodegradation of CV dye was examined using a medium pressure Hg lamp. It was determined that the composite gels adsorb CV dye from the solution at the beginning while under the photochemical condition. Eventually, the dye in the gel was photodegraded, indicating that in the gel system, the photodegradation process is still effective to dyes. The composite gels containing pure anatase phase titanium are much better photocatalysts and took less time of adsorption than those containing pure rutile and anatase/rutile mixed phases of titania.

Cuidar de feridas é um processo dinâmico e complexo que requer atenção especial principalmente quando se refere a uma lesão crônica. A lesão por pressão (LPP) é uma ferida crônica localizada na pele ou no tecido subjacente, geralmente sobre uma proeminência óssea, resultante de pressão isolada ou pressão combinada com fricção ou cisalhamento. O objetivo foi avaliar a aplicabilidade das membranas de hidrogel com nanopartículas de prata no tratamento de lesões por pressão (LPPs) em usuários do SUS, por meio de protocolo clínico. O projeto da pesquisa foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da UFT/TO sob nº 161/2013, e foram seguidos todos os preceitos éticos conforme Resolução 466/12 do CNS do Ministério da Saúde. Trata-se de um estudo de intervenção terapêutica, do tipo ensaio clínico não controlado, sobre a avaliação do uso da membrana de hidrogel com nanopartículas de prata (NPAg) produzida pelo Instituto de Pesquisa em Energia Nuclear (IPEN). A população do estudo foi composta por 19 pacientes, que por critérios de inclusão e exclusão foi constituída por uma amostra de 6 (seis) pacientes de ambos os gêneros, internados no Hospital de Referência de Porto Nacional, no período de janeiro de 2014 a dezembro de 2015, acometidos por lesões por pressão categoria 3, 4 e não classificável. O estudo apresentou como limitações o restrito número de pacientes por amostra, por se tratar de pesquisa clínica experimental, com um grupo investigado altamente selecionado pelos critérios de exclusão e inclusão. Os hidogéis com NPAg, produzidos pelo IPEN, mostraram-se eficazes no tratamento das LPPs, pois proporcionaram a ferida condições para a epitelização. Houve diminuição do odor, dos tecidos desvitalizados e da dor, itens estes que quando presentes retardam a cicatrização. Porém são necessários novos estudos, envolvendo estes curativos com um número maior de pacientes. / Wound\'s care is a dynamic and complex process that requires special attention especially when referring to a chronic injury. Pressure injury (PI) is a chronic wound located on the skin or underlying tissue, usually on a prominent bone, resulting from isolated pressure or pressure combined with friction or shear. The objective of this work is to evaluate the applicability of hydrogel membranes with silver nanoparticles in the treatment of pressure lesions in SUS users, through a clinical protocol. The research project was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of UFT / TO under No. 161/2013, and all ethical precepts were followed according to Resolution 466/12 of the CNS of the Ministry of Health. It is a therapeutic intervention\'s study, an uncontrolled clinical trial on the evaluation of the use of hydrogel membrane with silver nanoparticles produced by the Nuclear Energy Research Institute (IPEN). The study population consisted of 19 patients, who, by inclusion and exclusion criteria, consisted of a sample of 6 (six) patients of both genders admitted to the National Reference Hospital of Porto Nacional from January 2014 to December of 2015, affected by category 3, 4 and non-classifiable injuries. The study presented as limitation the restricted number of patients per sample, since it was an experimental clinical research, with a highly selected by the exclusion and inclusion criteria investigated group. The hydrogels with NPAg, produced by IPEN, were effective in the treatment of PI, as they provided the wound conditions for epithelization. There was a decrease in odor, devitalized tissues and pain, which, when present, delays healing. However, new studies are necessary, involving these dressings with a larger number of patients.

O desenvolvimento de uma matriz de colágeno associado à gelatina tem potencial como biomaterial devido sua alta biocompatibilidade, capacidade de alterar suas propriedades físico-químicas e estruturais por modificações químicas e a habilidade de formar géis estáveis. Porém, um ponto negativo de sua aplicação está na biodegradabilidade. Desta forma, para reduzir esta degradação, agentes de reticulação, como a proantocianidina (PA), que age formando ligações de hidrogênio as quais estabilizam o complexo proteína-PA, podem ser empregados. Este trabalho teve como objetivo a obtenção de hidrogéis neutros de colágeno aniônico:gelatina:extrato de semente de uva. Para tanto, foram utilizadas duas proporções de extrato, 0,25 e 0,50% e três diferentes tempos de hidrólise alcalina do colágeno, 24, 72 e 120 horas, gerando nove diferentes biomateriais, incluindo os hidrogéis sem tratamento com o extrato. O colágeno foi extraído de tendão bovino e o agente reticulante foi o extrato de semente de uva cujo componente majoritário é a proantocianidina. A caracterização foi feita por termogravimetria (TG), calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC), espectroscopia de absorção no infravermelho (FTIR), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), cinética de absorção de água e ensaios de citotoxicidade in vitro, pelos métodos de difusão em ágar e difusão de extrato em solução (MTT). Estudos de TG mostraram a perda de água em um processo único, representando em média 95% do hidrogel. As curvas DSC mostraram que quanto maior a concentração de extrato, maior é a temperatura de desnaturação, aumentando em média 6,8°C com a adição de 0,50% de extrato, o que indica a eficácia da proantocianidina na reticulação do colágeno. Além disso, notaram-se temperaturas menores para maiores tempos de hidrólise alcalina do colágeno, sendo de 58,4°C, 49,7°C e 46,5°C para hidrogéis preparados com colágeno 24, 72 e 120 horas, respectivamente. A presença do extrato não causou alterações significativas nos espectros FTIR, apenas surgimento das bandas em 1118 e 1288 cm-1 referentes ao anel aromático da proantocianidina, mas gerou mudanças nas estruturas internas dos hidrogéis, visualizadas por MEV, como aumento do número de poros e interconectividade entre eles. A cinética de absorção de água mostrou que o equilíbrio é atingido em aproximadamente 10 minutos, indicando vantagem para a aplicação do hidrogel, já que é obtido rapidamente a partir de sua forma liofilizada, adequada para o armazenamento. Também foi observado que quanto menor é o tempo de hidrólise, maiores são as absorções, variando de 540 até 1360%. Com os ensaios de citotoxicidade foi possível concluir que o hidrogel C24GE50 mostrou-se mais adequado para uma aplicação como biomaterial, com um índice de 92,7% de sobrevivência celular. / The development of a collagen matrix associated with gelatin has potential as biomaterial due to its high compatibility, ability to change its physical-chemical and structural properties by chemical modifications and also the ability to form stable gels. However, a negative point of its application is the biodegradability. Thus, to reduce this degradation, crosslinking agents, such as proanthocyanidin (PA), which acts forming hydrogen bonds which stabilize the PA protein complex may be employed. This project aimed to obtain neutral hydrogels prepared by mixture of anionic collagen: gelatin: grape seed extract. It was used two extract proportions (0.25 and 0.50%) and three different periods of time for collagen alkaline hydrolysis (24, 72, 120 hours), giving nine different biomaterials, including hydrogels without treatment with the extract. The collagen was extracted from bovine tendon and the crosslinking agent was grape seed extract whose major component is the proanthocyanidin. The characterization was done by thermogravimetry (TG), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), water absorption kinetics and in vitro cytotoxicity assays, by agar diffusion method and diffusion of extract in solution (MTT). TG results showed loss of water in a single process, representing about 95% of the hydrogel.DSC curves showed that the higher the concentration of the extract, the higher the melting temperature, increasing on average 6.8 °C with the addition of 0.50% extract, which indicates the effectiveness of the proanthocyanidin crosslinking of the collagen. Moreover, lower temperatures were observed for longer periods of alkaline hydrolysis of collagen, being 58.4°C, 49.7°C and 46.5°C for preparations with 24, 72 and 120 hours, respectively. The presence of the extract did not cause significant changes in the FTIR spectra, only appearance of bands at 1118 and 1288 cm-1 related to the aromatic ring of proanthocyanidin but led to changes in internal structures of the hydrogels viewed by SEM, showing increased number of pores and interconnectivity between them. The water absorption kinetics showed that the equilibrium is achieved in approximately 10 minutes, indicating advantages in using this hydrogel, which is quickly obtained from its lyophilized form, a suitable form for storage. It was also observed that the shorter the time of hydrolysis, the greater the absorptions, ranging from 540 to 1360%. It was possible to conclude from the cytotoxicity analysis that the C24GE50 is more suitable for application as a biomaterial, with an index of 92.7% cell survival.

"In situ polymerizing hydrogel systems play an important role in many tissue engineering applications. They have proven to be useful in biomedical applications that require conversion of liquid macromer solution to tissue compliant hydrogel under physiological conditions. A series of poly(ethylene glycol)-co-poly(lactate) diacrylate macromers were synthesized with variable PEG molecular weight and lactate content. The macromer compositions were confirmed by NMR spectroscopy and ion chromatography. These macromers were polymerized to form hydrogels by free radical polymerization using either redox or photochemical initiators. The current study focused on the optimization of polymerization conditions. Compressive modulus and residual acrylate analysis were used to evaluate polymerization efficiency. To characterize the network structure, the swelling ratio values were converted to the average molecular weight between crosslinks ( ) and mesh sizes (ξ) using Flory-Rehner theory. Current study suggested hydrophobic modification is desired to achieve high polymerization efficiency. Electrospinning is a developing technique to produce ultra fine fibrous structures from polymer solutions. Current research efforts have focused on understanding the effects of principal parameters such as molecular weight distribution (MWD) and polymer surfactant interactions on the morphology of the electrospun patterns. Fundamental understanding of the dilute solution rheology of the polydisperse polymer/solvent and polymer/solvent/surfactant systems was first established. Using viscometry, the on-set of entanglement concentrations could be obtained for various systems. Electrospinning was then carried out to evaluate the effects of polymer molecular weight, molecular weight distribution (MWD) and the polymer-surfactant interaction on the fiber formation and morphological features. The importance of increased chain entanglements due to high molecular weight component within the polydisperse system and the expansion of the coil dimension by binding the surfactant micelles have been recognized. The critical concentrations for incipient as well as stable fiber formation were determined. "

This thesis has investigated several complex situations that may be encountered in electrochemical studies. Three main situations have been examined, they include the formation of polymer films on electrode surfaces during measurements, a novel nanocatalyst modified electrode surfaces, and organised carbon nanotube (CNT) structures on electrode surfaces. These have been utilised for different electrochemical applications owing to their dissimilar properties. Voltammetric techniques of cyclic voltammetry (CV), square wave voltammetry (SWV) and Fourier transformed large amplitude ac voltammetry (FTACV) have been utilised to examine these reactions. Chapter 3 reports the investigation of catechol oxidation and subsequent polymerisation through crosslinking with D-glucosamine or chitosan. Hydrogel can be formed on the electrode surface during the process, which changes the viscosity of the solution and thus affects the diffusion of chemical species. This process has been examined by several voltammetric techniques. A further examination of the chemical system has also been conducted using FTACV for the first time. Chapter 4 describes the preparation of carbon microsphere supported molybdenum disulfide. The material has been utilised as electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in acidic media, and the performance tested by traditional linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and advanced FTACV techniques. The FTACV technique has been used for the first time for HER processes. In addition, the synthesised particles have also been used for thermal catalytic decomposition of hydrogen sulfide, which shows a significant improvement in the conversion rate over conventional examples. Chapter 5 demonstrates the direct growth of vertically aligned CNT forests on a gold electrode. The electrochemical response of the fabricated electrode has also been examined with ferrocyanide as the redox species. Furthermore, the immobilisation of anthraquinone onto CNT forest has been attempted. The fabricated electrode was utilised as a pH sensor via CV and SWV, and both indicates a well correlated pH-potential relationship in the pH range of 2 to 12. The sensor has also been assessed by the FTACV technique.