The thesis is focused on UN-authorized multinational miltary operations and their involvement in armed conflict as a possible party to it. The aim of the research is to define the notion of "armed conflict" and "party to armed conflict" as well as to investigate under what circumstances  multinational military operations, including peace operations, may become party to an armed conflict, both de facto and de jure.

Naming and shaming is a widely used strategy by the transnational advocacy network (TAN) to prevent human rights abuses and increase compliance to international humanitarian law (IHL). However, existing research demonstrates controversial results about the efficacy of naming and shaming as a method to increase compliance to IHL. To add new insights to the ongoing IR debate, this paper investigates United Nations’ (UN’s) naming and shaming of children’s rights abusers in conflict. A quantitative analysis of UN’s Annual Reports on Children and Armed Conflict between 2013-2018 provides an assessment of the assumed link between public condemnation of state actors and armed non-state actors (ANSAs) who commit children’s rights violations in conflict, and an increase in compliance to IHL and protection of children. This paper aims to investigate the results of UN’s shaming policy through the theoretical framework of Constructivism and thus provide a critical assessment of the issue. The results of this thesis indicate that there seems to be a convincing link between the number of state actors listed on UN’s “lists of shame” and the number of parties who put in place measures to improve protection of children and increase compliance to IHL. On the other hand, the link seems to be weak when it comes to the number of publicly exposed ANSAs who subsequently commit to UN action plans and increase compliance to IHL.

Abstract : Pro-inflammatory cytokines play a key role in pathogenesis of obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). IL-15 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine, which signals through a receptor complex composed of the IL-15 receptor (IL-15R) alpha chain, the IL-2/IL-15R beta chain and the common gamma chain. The functions of IL-15 have been extensively described in immune cells but less is known about its functions in others tissues such as the liver. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the role of IL-15 in fatty liver disease. C57BL/6 wildtype (WT) and IL-15 knockout (Il15[superscript -/-]) mice were maintained on high fat diet (HFD) or normal control diet (NCD). After 16 weeks, body weight, liver mass, fat accumulation in the liver, serum lipid levels and gene expression in the liver were evaluated. Intrahepatic lymphocytes (IHL) were also analysed. Primary hepatocytes were stimulated with IL-15 and chemokines gene expression was studied. IHLs were examined in WT, Il15[superscript -/-] and Il15ra[superscript -/-], as well as in macrophage- and hepatocyte-specific Il15ra[superscript -/-] mice. We found that IL-15 deficiency prevents weight gain and accumulation of lipids in the liver. Circulating levels of cholesterol and non-esterified fatty acids were elevated in WT mice but not in Il15[superscript -/-] mice. Hepatic expression of chemokines such as Ccl2, Ccl5 and Cxcl10 was increased in WT mice under HFD, but not in Il15[superscript -/-] mice. The livers of Il15[superscript -/-] and Il15ra[superscript -/-] mice also showed decreased expression of Tnfa and iNOS, and macrophage markers Cd68 and F4/80. Accordingly, stimulation of primary hepatocytes with IL-15 induced chemokine gene expression in WT but not in Il15ra[superscript -/-] hepatocytes. Furthermore, hepatocyte-specific ablation of IL-15Rαreduced infiltration of NK and NKT cells in the liver, suggesting that IL15Rα expression in the hepatocytes is needed for the recruitment and/or maintenance of the NK cell population in the liver. In conclusion, IL-15 promotes fat accumulation in the liver, and this is associated with increased inflammatory response in the liver. Increased availability of IL-15 in obesity may stimulate hepatocytes to secrete chemokines that promote hepatic inflammation resulting in fatty liver disease. IL-15Rα expression in hepatocytes appears to play a role in the maintenance of NK, NKT and iNKT cells. // Résumé : Les cytokines pro-inflammatoires jouent un rôle important dans la pathogenèse de l’obésité et la stéatose hépatique. L'IL-15 est une cytokine pro-inflammatoire qui est trans-présentée par l'IL-15Rα aux chaines IL-2/IL-15Rβ et γc. La fonction de l'IL-15 a été largement décrite dans les cellules immunitaires, mais ses fonctions dans d'autres tissus sont moins connues. Le but de ce mémoire est d'élucider le rôle de l'IL-15 dans la stéatose hépatique. Les souris C57BL/6 de type sauvage (WT) et Il15[indice supérieur -/-] ont été soumises à un régimehyperlipidique (HFD) ou à un régime normal. Après 16 semaines, le poids corporel, lamasse hépatique, l'accumulation de lipides dans le foie, les taux de lipides sériques et l'expression des différents gènes reliés à l’inflammation et au métabolisme dans le foie ont été évalués. Les lymphocytes intra-hépatiques (IHL) ont été également étudiés. Des hépatocytes primaires ont été stimulés avec IL-15, et l'expression génique de chimiokines a été déterminée. Les populations de IHLs ont été également caractérisées chez les souris WT, Il15[indice supérieur -/-] et Il15ra[indice supérieur -/-], ainsi que chez des souris dont la déficience dans l’expression d’IL-15Rα est ciblée aux macrophages ou aux hépatocytes. Nos résultats montrent que la déficience en IL-15 empêche l'accumulation de lipides dans le foie. Les taux de cholestérol et d’acides gras non estérifiés dans le sang étaient élevés chez les souris WT, mais pas chez les souris Il15[indice supérieur -/-]. L'expression hépatique des chimiokines Ccl2, Ccl5, Cxcl10 et des marqueurs de macrophages était augmentée chez les souris WT sous HFD, mais pas chez les souris Il15[indice supérieur -/-]. La stimulation des hépatocytes primaires avec l'IL-15 induit l'expression des gènes des chimiokines chez les hépatocytes WT, mais pas chez les Il15ra[indice supérieur -/-]. En outre, nous avons trouvé une infiltration réduite des cellules NK et NKT dans le foie des souris déficientes en Il15ra[indice supérieur -/-] dans les hépatocytes, ce qui suggère que l'expression d’IL15Rα chez les hépatocytes est nécessaire aurecrutement des cellules NK, NKT et / ou à leur maintien. En conclusion, nous proposons que l’IL-15 favorise l'accumulation de lipides dans le foie, et que ceci est associée à une réponse inflammatoire accrue. La disponibilité accrue de l'IL-15 dans l'obésité pourrait stimuler les hépatocytes à secréter des chimiokines ce qui favorise l'inflammation hépatique et conduirait à la stéatose hépatique. L’expression de l'IL-15Rα dans les hépatocytes semble jouer un rôle principal dans l’infiltration des cellules NK, NKT et iNKT dans le foie.

This paper presents a gender analysis of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1820(2008), the International Human Rights Law and the International Humanitarian Law. The study is regarding resolution 1820 as a breakthrough in the writings of legal documents that criminalizes sexual violence against women in internal armed conflict. Using textual analysis and a feminist theoretical approach the study highlights the construction of gender norms in the legal document. The study suggests that the narrative of legislative bodies of the IHL and IHRL is dominated by masculinity. Furthermore I am discussing if such norms are evident as a form of essentialism in the legal document, if essentialism is apparent in local and international juridical systems, and what effect does it have on the resolution 1820.

Magister Legum - LLM / This mini-thesis analyses the international legal framework governing the protection of the natural environment during armed conflicts. It critically examines the normative rules in international humanitarian law and international environmental law in respect of environmental damage during armed conflicts and it highlights the strengths and shortcomings of international law in this regard. Furthermore, this thesis investigates how the regulatory structures of the African Union (AU) address the problem of environmental damage during armed conflict. It draws on the aforementioned analyses to determine how regional law in Africa differs from the international regime and in what ways the regional framework may serve to complement the international legal regime in order to strengthen the protection of the environment during armed conflict on the continent.

Magister Legum - LLM / The International Committee of the Red Cross/Crescent (ICRC) has been the only agency promoting the observance of the law of armed conflict. It has invested considerably in finding solutions to protecting people and regulates the means and methods of warfare. Throughout the development of the law of armed conflict, the protection of the environment was never the centre of focus. From the early 1868 Declaration of Saint Petersburg to the Hague Regulations of 1907, attention was given to weakening the military forces of the enemy and the right of the belligerents not to destroy or seize the enemy’s property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war. Through AP I, the basic principle of IHL was reaffirmed. The concepts of military necessity and proportionality became clearer, permitting only those acts of war which are proportional to the lawful objective of a military operation. Considering the cruelty experienced through the crises that occurred in the RC, it is therefore imperative for the administration to enforce their observation. In the light of the above background the aims of this research paper are to seek to explore the challenges that the current RC administration is facing in implementing IHL and IEL principles. In addition, the research paper will analyse the possibilities to promote the implementation of IHL and IEL instruments within the public domain, mostly the army, to dissipate any ignorance that occur. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) has also made it clear that an obligation rests upon states to take environmental considerations into account during armed conflict in so far as these relate to states’ military objectives

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This thesis examines the international community's meager response – despite the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) – to the conflict in Tigray. Why was the response minimal, and what could be done to make R2P more efficacious in the future? The R2P framework describes the responsibilities to protect populations around the world against mass atrocity crimes, as stated in Article 5 of the Rome Statute. The study shows that R2P as a framework is flawed, and proposes the creation of an R2P ombudsman to monitor conflicts, focus the international community's attention and assist states that are struggling or failing to protect vulnerable people. The thesis draws upon a theory of political realism but also highlights the sometime significance of shared ethical norms and values.

The negotiation process of a peace agreement is an uncertain period where adversaries can have a difficult time credibly guaranteeing their commitment to an approaching agreement. However, violence is often ceased before a peace agreement is signed, demonstrating their importance for understanding non-violent and violent behavior by warring actors. Furthermore, research finds that rebels at times comply with laws of war during conflict and negotiations. Hence, the purpose of this study is to derive a better understanding of rebel groups’ non-violent behavior, and whether it relates to the commitment problem and the negotiation process. This paper argues that by complying with international law, rebels can convey a signal with a peace-making objective, increasing the likelihood of a successful negotiation. Through a qualitative, structured and focused comparative case analysis of the FMLN in El Salvador and the NPFL in Liberia, the study finds that rebel’s compliance with IHL may serve as a costly signal that mitigates the credible commitment problem and leads to the signing of a successful peace agreement. However, further research is needed to support this hypothesis.