The purpose of this thesis is to understand how implicit processes determine individual and organisational behaviour in the context of business to business (B2B) decision making. A broad literature review suggests that implicit cognition has a significantly more powerful influence than therefore assumed. The author calls for further research into the motivations driving professional behaviour in B2B situations as new study challenges the classical economic theory of the homo economicus, and focuses on the role of implicit motives as a possible driver. As a first objective, the study attempts to reveal a typical structure of implicit motives based on hierarchy and gender. The second objective is to delineate the interplay between the implicit motives and the decision making process in B2B. The third objective is to examine the consequences and implications for business to business marketing. The methodology is based on an interdisciplinary mixed method approach. To address the gaps in existing knowledge, an experiment and a survey (n=175) in different sectors were conducted. For the analysis, a variety of techniques such as operant motive tests, cluster- and multivariate analysis were employed to analyse the empirical response. Semi-structured qualitative in-depth interviews (n=8) were carried out to detect the consequences and the implications of the new findings for practice. The findings of the research indicate that marketing is much more a selective communication as assumed. The impact of marketing communication is not always consciously perceived by customers and the most part is implicit. In conclusion, there seems to be an interplay between implicit motives and the B2B decision making process. Hypotheses about the interplay of implicit motives and business to business decision making were confirmed in personal, management and group decision experiments. As a contribution to existing theory on the subject, it can be postulated that rational choice in B2B decision making may play a limited role. In addition marketing experts from various industry sectors emphasise the importance and the potential impacts for future B2B marketing. Experts stress the need to reveal the real motivational drivers in marketing communication.

"Strong situations" have been shown to decrease behavioral variability, thereby attenuating the criterion-related validity of non-ability individual differences for criteria such as job performance (Barrick&Mount, 1993; Meyer, Dalal,&Bonaccio, 2009). However, it has been suggested that individuals, based on individual differences in implicit motives, may impute discrepant psychological meaning to social stimuli like situational strength--a process sometimes known as differential framing (James&McIntyre, 1996). If different psychological interpretations are attached to strong situation stimuli (e.g., Meyer, Dalal,&Hermida, 2010), an interesting behavioral "double-edged sword" is possible. On the one hand, behaviors pertinent to "primary criteria" (i.e., criteria for which external situational influences and pressures lead to targeted behavioral homogeneity) may occur among those who would not normally engage in them. But, at the same time, behaviors pertinent to "secondary criteria" (i.e., unintended, unforeseen, and potentially reactionary behaviors and/or attitudes) might also increase for some individuals (i.e., those with certain implicit motive characteristics). In other words, high situational strength may simultaneously constrain behavioral variability in primary criteria while serving as a stimulus for differential framing, thereby expanding variability on secondary criteria. The purpose of the present dissertation was twofold: 1) to explore the degree to which situational strength is differentially framed, and 2) to ascertain how the differential framing of situational strength may lead to unintended secondary outcomes. Study 1 findings indicate that, to a partial extent, situational strength is differentially framed by individuals with different implicit motives. Study 2 findings are largely consistent with extant situational strength theory, though partially inconsistent with study predictions.

In this study, the relationship of autobiographical memory, implicit motivation, sociocultural orientation, and childhood variables was investigated cross-culturally. A German sample reflecting a prototypical independent context (n=100), and a Chinese (n = 77) and Cameroonian sample (n = 68) from a prototypical interdependent context were selected. Participants were asked to report their earliest childhood memories, to answer socio-demographic questions, to complete the Operant Multimotive Test as a measure of their implicit motivation, and two self-report scales to indicate their sociocultural orientation. Special attention was given to considerations of methodological equivalence across cultures.It was expected that (1) Chinese and Cameroonian participants recall more oriented towards others than German participants, and that (2) individuals from a social-oriented childhood context make more use of the social function of autobiographical recall, and finally that (3) implicit motivation and sociocultural orientation predict autobiographical memory across cultures.Results indicate that Cameroonian and Chinese participants generally make more use of the social function of autobiographical memory than do German participants. Furthermore, the more siblings an individual has, the more she/he makes use of the social function. Missing effects of implicit motivation and sociocultural orientation on interindividual differences in autobiographical memory are accounted for by methodological constraints.

It has been established that specific implicit motive profiles predict job performance and career progression. However, it has not been a topic of examination to distinguish the role implicit motives play in developing certain leadership behaviors that, in turn, lead to job performance and success. My hypotheses were that, firstly, the ownership structure of organizations will play a distinct role in establishing the implicit motives that lead to managerial progression and, secondly, implicit motives will better predict long-term (general) leadership behaviors whereas explicit motives will better predict situation-specific leadership behaviors. In Study 1 the effects of three types of organizations as well as the effects of executive level/responsibility on the implicit motive profiles of managers were assessed. The types of organizations were family-owned and -led, foreign-owned and family-led, as well as publicly-owned and -led after previous family ownership. Data collection took place between the years 2004 and 2010. It could be demonstrated that an organization's ownership structure was significantly correlated with the implicit motives of managers, while executive level/responsibility was not. In Study 2 implicit and explicit motives were tested as predictors of competency scores in three separate cases. Case 1 consisted of data from one pharmaceutical company based in Spain; Case 2 encompassed data from 13 different companies in several industries and countries; and Case 3 included data for one global services and technology company with headquarters in the US. Data were collected between the years 2002 and 2010. The results yielded were inconsistent across cases. Unexpectedly, both implicit and explicit motives were predictive of competency scores. Beside the main effects, interaction effects of implicit motives and congruity between implicit and explicit motives were considered. I also included implicit motives of the CEO, as scored in the letter to the shareholder, as well as the congruence of manager implicit motives with CEO implicit motives into these analyses. Effects of these variables were also inconsistent across cases. Study 3 extended previous investigations to explore the effects of implicit and explicit motives as well as leadership styles on organizational climate. Organizational climate was observed from two perspectives: actual climate as perceived by subordinates and ideal climate as desired by managers. Based on management data collected in the years 2000 through 2008 for four companies in the agriculture, mining, telecommunications and transportation sectors, findings indicated that only leadership styles consistently accounted for changes in organizational climate. However, ideal desired climate could also be partially explained by managers’ explicit motives in some cases. As expected, implicit motives did not predict organizational climate in any of the analyses.

The diploma thesis consists of a theoretical and a practical part. The objective of the theoretical part is to introduce basic terms and ideas related to emotions (with focus on emotional regulation) and to map different views on the possibilities of emotional regulation. Further, the thesis mainly deals with the repressive coping style. Included in the conclusion of the theoretical part is a short chapter dealing with motivation, especially the implicit motives. This whole part of the thesis is based on specialised literature. The practical part contains an empirical research, before the beginning of which a small number of repressors had been found using a screening method. The research itself maps the subjective views of these repressors on the regulation of their own emotions and their implicit motivational tendencies. Conclusions and a summary of results are given at the end of the practical part.

How distinct implicit and explicit motive systems differ has long been unclear. Schultheiss' (2001) information processing account of implicit motive arousal hypothesized that implicit motives respond to nonverbal stimuli to influence non-declarative measures of motivation and that explicit motives respond to verbal stimuli to influence declarative measures of motivation. Moreover, in individuals high in referential competence, i.e., with the ability to quickly translate non-verbal stimuli into a verbal representation, implicit motives are thought to respond to verbal stimuli and influence declarative measures of motivation and explicit motives are thought to respond to nonverbal stimuli and to influence non-declarative measures of motivation. The present study tested these hypotheses by assessing liking ratings as a declarative response format and an affective stroop task as a non-declarative response format using emotion words as verbal and emotional facial expressions as non-verbal stimuli. Individual power, affiliation, and achievement motive dispositions were assessed via the Picture Story Excercise for implicit motives and via questionnaires for explicit motives. Referential competence was assessed via a colour-naming/-reading task. I found that as expected explicit and implicit motives overall were not correlated across subjects. Moreover, implicit and explicit motives affected declarative and non-declarative responses for verbal and non-verbal stimuli. As predicted, however, implicit motives responded to verbal stimuli and influenced declarative responses more strongly for individuals high compared to those low in referential competence. Likewise, explicit motive effects were moderated by referential competence in some - but not all - of the predicted conditions. These results show that implicit and explicit motives can influence declarative and non-declarative responses to verbal and non-verbal stimuli. They support the hypothesis that referential processing is needed for implicit motives to respond to verbal stimuli and influence declarative response formats, and they partly support the hypothesis that referential processing plays a role for the influence of explicit motives. Results for explicit motives may suggest that new measures are needed to assess the referential competence to translate verbal stimuli into non-verbal representations. Overall, the findings provide support to the information processing account of implicit motive arousal by Schultheiss' (2001), suggesting that a non-verbal and non-declarative implicit motive system and a distinct verbal and declarative explicit motive system interact via referential processing, i.e., by translating information between representational formats. / Wie sich distinkte implizite und explizite Motivsysteme voneinander unterscheiden war lange unklar. Schultheiss' (2001) Informationsverarbeitungsansatz für implizite Motivanregung hat die Hypothese aufgestellt, dass implizite Motive auf nonverbale Reize reagieren um nicht-deklarative Motivationsmaße zu beeinflussen, und dass explizite Motive auf verbale Reize reagieren um deklarative Motivationsmaße zu beeinflussen. Zudem wird angenommen, dass in Individuen mit einer hohen referentiellen Kompetenz - d.h. mit der Fähigkeit nonverbale Reize schnell in eine verbale Repräsentation zu übersetzen - implizite Motive auf verbale Reize reagieren und deklarative Motivationsmaße beeinflussen, und explizite Motive auf nonverbale Reize reagieren um non-deklarative Motivationsmaße zu beeinflussen. Die aktuelle Studie hat diese Hypothesen getested indem sie Bewertungen zum individuellen Gefallen von Reizen als ein deklaratives Antwortformat und eine affektive Stroop-Aufgabe als ein nicht-deklaratives Antwortformat unter Verwendung von Emotionswörtern als verbale Reize und emotionalen Gesichtsausdrücken als nonverbalen Reizen gemessen hat. Individuelle Macht-, Anschluss-, und Leistungsmotivdispositionen wurden durch die Bildgeschichtenaufgabe für implizite Motive und durch Fragebögen für explizite Motive gemessen. Referentielle Kompetenz wurde durch eine Farb-Nennungs/-Lesen Aufgabe gemessen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass - wie erwartet - implizite und explizite Motive über Versuchspersonen hinweg nicht korreliert waren. Zudem zeigte sich insgesamt ein Einfluss von impliziten und expliziten Motiven auf deklarative und nicht-deklarative Antworten für verbale und nonverbale Reize. Wie vorhergesagt reagierten implizite Motive auf verbale Reize und beeinflussten deklarative Antworten stärker für Individuen mit einer hohen im Vergleich zu einer niedrigen referentiellen Kompetenz. Zudem wurden explizite Motiveffekte in einigen, aber nicht in allen vorhergesagten Bedingungen von referentieller Kompetenz moderiert. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass implizite und explizite Motive deklarative und nicht-deklarative Antworten auf verbale und nonverbale Reize beeinflussen können. Sie unterstützen die Hypothese, dass referentielle Verarbeitung notwendig ist damit implizite Motive auf verbale Reize reagieren und deklarative Antworten beeinflussen können, und unterstützen teilweise die Hypothese, dass referentielle Verarbeitung eine Rolle für den Einfluss von expliziten Motiven spielt. Das Ergebnis für explizite Motive könnte Nahe legen, dass neue Maße notwendig sind um die referentielle Kompetenz zu messen um verbale Reize in nonverbale Repräsentationen zu übersetzen. Zusammengefasst bieten diese Befunde Unterstützung für den Informationsverarbeitungsansatz der impliziten Motivanregung von Schultheiss (2001), welcher vorschlägt, dass ein nonverbales und nicht-deklaratives implizites Motivsystem und ein distinktes verbales und deklaratives explizites Motivsystem miteinander durch referentielle Verarbeitung wechselwirken, d.h., indem Information zwischen repräsentationalen Formaten übersetzt wird.

Im Rahmen zweier Studien im Leistungssport werden die Effekte bewusster und unbewusster Faktoren auf implizite und explizite Motive untersucht. Es kann die Distinktheit der Vorhersagebereiche impliziter und expliziter Motivdiagnostik repliziert werden. Dabei wird aufgezeigt, dass die handlungsführenden Effekte impliziter und expliziter Motive jeweils exklusiv durch unbewusste Impulskontrolle und bewusste Selbststeuerungskompetenzen moderiert werden. Allein implizite Prozesse (implizite Motive, Impulskontrolle) besitzen prognostischen Wert für sportliches Leisten in Situationen die unbewusst verarbeitet werden. Explizite Prozesse (explizite Motive, bewusste Selbststeuerung) hingegen sagen sportliches Leisten in bewusst verarbeiteten Situationen des sportlichen Wettkampfs vorher. Die differentielle Prognostizität direkter und indirekter Motivdiagnostik in der Sportpsychologie kann durch die Berücksichtigung adäquater Faktoren verbessert werden. Aufgrund der Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit ist bei der Auswahl adäquater Persönlichkeitsvariablen darauf zu achten, dass das zu prognostizierende Kriterium und die Erhebungsmethodik bezüglich ihres Grades an bewusster Bearbeitung miteinander übereinstimmen. / The effects of conscious and unconscious factors on implicit and explicit motives were examined in the context of two studies. The distinct array of prediction by implicit and explicit motive diagnostic can be replicated. Though it was possible to provide evidence for the exclusive moderation of implicit motives by unconscious activity inhibition while explicit motives were moderated by conscious skills of self-regulation. Only the implicit processes (implicit motives and activity inhibition) proof a value to predicting human activity in situations coped without consciousness. In contrast only explicit processes (explicit motives and conscious skills of self-regulation) can predict the outcome of behaviour in situations coped with consciousness. The results of that paper can improve the differential prediction of direct and indirect motive diagnostic by regarding the adequate moderator factors. Further investigations will have the ability to improve the value of motivational predictors if they consider, that the level of consciousness is consistent within the situation of ascertainment the motivational predictor and the situation the criteria is imposed.

Duale Prozessmodelle unterscheiden implizite und explizite Formen der Informations-verarbeitung (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Implizite Verarbeitung erfolgt schnell und un-bewusst und basiert auf affektiv-assoziativen Netzwerken. Explizite Verarbeitung geschieht überlegt und langsam und beinhaltet bewusste, kognitive Entscheidungsprozesse. In dualen Prozessmodellen der Motivation sagen implizite Motive langfristiges Verhalten und explizite Motive bewusste Entscheidungen vorher (McClelland, et al., 1989). Hoher positiver Affekt sowie geringer negativer Affekt aktivieren implizite kognitive Systeme während eine entgegen gesetzte Ausprägung explizite Informationsverarbeitung bahnt (J. Kuhl, 2000a). Drei Feldstudien untersuchen die diskriminante Validität impliziter vs. expliziter motivationaler Prozesse für das Verhalten in unbewussten vs. bewussten kritischen Situatio-nen im Hochleistungssport. In Studie 1 und 2 wird bei Tennis- (N = 60) und Basketballspielern (N = 56) die Fähigkeit erhoben, positiven und negativen Affekt zu regulieren (ACS-90; J. Kuhl, 1994). In Studie 3 (N = 86) werden zusätzlich implizite (OMT; J. Kuhl & Scheffer, 1999) und explizite Motive (PRF; D. N. Jackson, 1999) sowie die Fähigkeit zur bewussten Selbstregulation (VCQ; J. Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) gemessen. In Studie 1 sagen explizite Formen der Verarbeitung (niedrige positive Affektregulation) die Tennisleistung in objektiv kritischen (wie Tie Breaks) aber nicht in bewusst kritischen Situationen vorher. In Studie 2 führt implizite Verarbeitung (hohe negative Af-fektregulation) zu besseren Basketballleistungen in objektiv kritischen Spielen. In Studie 3 unterstützt explizite Verarbeitung Leistungen in bewusst kritischen Situationen im Rückschlagsport. In unbewusst kritischen Situationen erzielen dagegen Sportler mit ausgeprägten impliziten Motiven bessere Ergebnisse. Die Befunde werden hinsichtlich der Sportartenspezifik, dem Grad der Bewusstheit sowie Persönlichkeitsunterschiede diskutiert. / Dual-process models distinguish implicit and explicit ways of information processing (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Implicit processes are based on associative affective networks and operate fast and unconsciously. Explicit processing is a cognitive, usually slow, deliberate, and conscious way of decision-making. Dual-process models of motivation propose that implicit motives predict long-term behavior and explicit motives predict deliberate decisions (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989). Up-regulation of positive affect and down-regulation of negative affect activate implicit cognitive systems while regulation in the opposite direction triggers explicit information processing (J. Kuhl, 2000a). Within three field studies it is investigated whether implicit vs. explicit motivational processes are of discriminant validity for professional athletic behavior in unconsciously vs. consciously critical situations. In study one and two, tennis (N = 60) and basketball professionals’ (N = 56) abilities to regulate positive and negative affect (ACS-90; J. Kuhl, 1994) are assessed. In study three (N = 86) the additional measures of implicit (OMT; J. Kuhl & Scheffer, 1999) and explicit motives (PRF; D. N. Jackson, 1999) as well as conscious self-regulation (VCQ; J. Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) are used. Study one proposes that explicit processing supports performance in objective critical situations (tie breaks) in tennis. However, in consciously critical situations no advantage for explicitly processing athletes could be found. In study two implicitly processing basketball players perform better in objectively critical games. In the final study racquet sportsmen who process explicitly perform better in consciously critical situations. In contrast, in unconsciously critical situations athletes with high implicit motives gain better results. Findings are discussed from the perspective of task specificity, degree of awareness, and individual differences.

Leadership in stressful and dangerous situations is vitally important in terms of lives, property, and national strategic objectives. But our understanding of effective leadership in these and other contexts is limited. Part of the problem is that interactionist theoretical perspectives are not reflected in contemporary leadership thinking. In addition, the impact of individual differences on leadership is often misrepresented or hidden by linear correlations and regressions conducted on continuous scores. This study employed new, innovative, indirect conditional reasoning measures to assess the personalities of 627 leaders entering the militaryâ s most challenging and stressful combat leader development course (the US Army Ranger School). These innovative measures predicted compelling differences in leadership, attrition, and in the peer evaluations made during the training. Analyses conducted on the continuous personality scores demonstrate that these findings are misrepresented or hidden by linear correlations and regressions. As an alternative, I present a configural scoring scheme, couched in a poker analogy, to explain how these individual differences combine to predict the odds of success for each of the 18 personality types studied.