The diploma thesis deals with the issue of international transportation of products traded by Česká zbrojovka a.s., concentrating specifically on air and sea transportation. The main focus is on the transport of products destined for the automotive industry and on the transport of weapons and cartridges. The first theoretical part deals with air and sea transport, transport of dangerous goods and the International Commercial Terms (INCOTERMS). The second practical part examines separate transports of these products. In the end of this practical part are these concrete examined transports compared.

[pt] O planejamento de redes logísticas surge como decisão estratégica a ser tomada na busca por aumento da eficiência operacional das empresas. O presente estudo desenvolveu uma modelagem de redes logísticas, contemplando os principais componentes de custos envolvidos no processo de importação de materiais, com enfoque nos custos de transportes, (aero)portuários e tributários, onde cada um desses componentes corresponde a um arco ou nó passível de ser utilizado no caminho ótimo. A pesquisa foi documental e o procedimento foi testado em um caso de importação pela Marinha do Brasil, baseado nos custos contratuais firmados entre os agentes envolvidos. Constatou-se que, no caso estudado, contrariando a lógica, a importação de material cujo destino era uma localidade na cidade do Rio de Janeiro/RJ seria mais econômica utilizando-se o porto situado na cidade de Paranaguá/PR e não portos no estado do Rio de Janeiro. Os resultados mostram que deve-se analisar, prioritariamente, o custo total da rede e não apenas cada custo individualmente, já que, em diversas situações, a redução de custos portuários (por exemplo) poderá compensar o aumento dos custos de transporte e seguro nacionais e internacionais. Os custos tributários, para o caso estudado, não influenciaram no resultado final por tratar-se de órgão da administração pública direta isento de grande parte dos tributos da importação. No entanto, em regra, esses custos também devem ser considerados. Por fim, observa-se que, quanto maior o valor da carga a ser importada, mais vantajoso ficará seu envio para os terminais com menores alíquotas de armazenagem portuária. / [en] The logistics network planning emerges as a strategic decision of the companies to be taken in the pursuit of the increasing of operational efficiency. This study developed logistics modeling that covers the main cost components in the process of material importing, focusing on transport, (air)ports and tributaries costs, where each component corresponds to an arc or node capable of being used in optimum path. The procedure was tested in a case of import of godos by the Brazilian Navy, based on contractual costs and documents signed between the involved agents. It was found that, in the case studied, it would be more economic importing the material destinated to the city of Rio de Janeiro / RJ using the port in the city of Paranaguá / PR, instead of using ports in the state of Rio de Janeiro. These results show that all the network costs have to be analyzed, not only each individual cost, because, in many cases, reducing port costs (for example) we can compensate the increase of national and international transport and insurance costs. In this case studied, tax costs cannot influence the final result, because it is a public agency and it is exempt from almost all of import taxes. However, these costs must be considered in other cases. Finally, we observed that the higher the value of the imported cargo is, the better is to choose terminals with lower rates of port storage.

The aim of this master's thesis is to combine academic knowledge with a real business world situation. Main goal of the thesis is to analyze the possibility of developing a distribution channel in Europe rather than selling on CFR basis. The theoretical part will define the main terms and conditions of the container logistics in the 21st century along with the specifications of the European market. This will set up a more stable ground for understanding the whole polymer distribution process. In the practical part, Tricon Energy will be introduced and its current distribution to Europe strategy analyzed. Based on the polymer market situation in Europe and findings from the theoretical part, an optimization of the supply chain process can begin. The optimization will start with the purchase side, followed by the transportation and warehousing to the sales side. In the last chapter, three complex scenarios of the new distribution strategy will be presented and compared as the outcome of this master's thesis.

This work deals with the specifics of relations between entities in the negotiation and implementation of international transport of goods. Since he is currently the most common way of transport of goods in Central Europe freight road transport of goods, the text is mainly dedicated to this issue. The underlying code for the obligations in this respect, the Convention CMR, which is devoted to a large part of the work. In other parts of the work is also introduced to the TIR Convention, the ADR Agreement concerning the international carriage of dangerous goods and the ATP Agreement, which defines the requirements for the transport of perishable foodstuffs. In the end, understand that INCOTERMS clauses with international trade and international transport of goods is closely related.

Memoria de prueba para optar al grado de Licenciada en Ciencias Jurídicas y Sociales de la Universidad de Chile / La doctrina ha dicho que los Incoterms son el “conjunto de reglas internacionales, regidos por la Cámara de Comercio Internacional, que determinan el alcance de las cláusulas comerciales incluidas en el contrato de compraventa internacional” relativas a las condiciones de entrega de la mercancía1. Para que estas reglas produzcan efecto, es necesario que se modifiquen y adapten a los cambios que presente la actividad comercial y las prácticas mercantiles. Es así como la Cámara de Comercio Internacional ha ido modificado estas reglas en diversas oportunidades desde su creación en 1936 creándose nuevas modalidades de contratación, modificando las ya existentes o incluso eliminando reglas que han caído en desuso. Bajo este contexto, los Incoterms versión 2010 llegan a modificar la versión anterior del año 2000, proponiendo adaptaciones de las reglas al uso comercial. Para entender el porqué de cada una de las versiones de los Incoterms se hace necesario un análisis de ellos abarcando en primera instancia el contexto histórico en el que nacen, para luego analizar los motivos que dan origen a dichas adaptaciones posteriores que derivan en la modificación, eliminación o creación de nuevos términos Incoterm.

Thesis (LLD (Mercantile Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: International sales contracts have very specific needs that stem from the multiplicity of legal systems which apply to such contracts. In addition to harmonised law, mercantile custom is able to address many of these needs. Mercantile custom represents usages which are clear, certain and efficient and are expected to be known and applied by merchants in a particular trade or region. To this extent mercantile custom fulfils an automatic harmonisation function. However, where a custom does not enjoy uniform application across all branches of trade, the harmonisation function of mercantile custom is limited, as is the case with trade terms. Trade terms reflect mercantile customs and usages which developed over a long time in order to simplify the trade in goods that are transported from one place to the other. They regulate the delivery obligations of the seller and buyer as well as associated obligations such as the passing of risk. Trade terms negate the need for elaborate contract clauses and appear in abbreviated form in contracts of sale. Although they provide a uniform expression of mercantile custom in a particular location or trade, the understanding of trade terms tend to differ from country to country, region to region or from one branch of trade to the next. The ICC INCOTERMS is an effort to standardise trade term definitions at the hand of the most consistent mercantile customs and practices. The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency of INCOTERMS as a form of standardisation in international sales law. For purposes of the investigation the focus is limited to the passing of risk. Although national laws usually have a default risk regime in place, merchants still prefer to regulate risk by means of trade terms. This study will investigate the legal position in the case of FOB, CIF and DDU terms. An analysis of the risk regimes of a few selected national systems will show that each has their own understanding of these trade terms. The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) does not refer to trade terms, but many commentators have concluded that the CISG risk rule is consistent with INCOTERMS. The study will discuss this in more detail. To determine the efficiency of INCOTERMS as a form of standardisation in international sales law, the study examines their characteristics, legal nature as well as their limited scope of regulation. Specific emphasis is placed on the interplay between the CISG and INCOTERMS and the possibility of some form of interaction and collaboration between the two instruments. It is concluded that collaboration between INCOTERMS and the CISG adds value to the international law of sales by increasing the efficiency of an international business transaction and thereby facilitating international trade. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Internasionale koopkontrakte het spesifieke behoeftes wat voortspruit uit die veelvoudigheid van regstelsels van toepassing op so ‘n kontrak. Baie van hierdie behoeftes kan aangespreek word deur geharmoniseerde regsreëls in samehang met handelsgewoontes en –gebruike. Handelsgewoontes verteenwoordig duidelike, seker en effektiewe gebruike. Daar word dus van handelaars wat in ‘n bepaalde bedryf of streek handel dryf, verwag om van hierdie gebruike kennis te neem en hulle toe te pas. In hierdie konteks vervul handelsgebruike ‘n outomatiese harmoniseringsfunksie. Waar ‘n gebruik nie eenvormig toegepas word oor alle bedrywe heen nie, is die harmoniseringsfunksie van handelsgebruike egter beperk. Handelsterme bied ‘n tipiese voorbeeld hiervan. Handelsterme verteenwoordig bepaalde handelsgewoontes en –gebruike wat oor ‘n geruime tyd ontwikkel het ten einde handel in goedere wat van een plek na die ander vervoer word, te vergemaklik. Hulle reguleer die leweringsverpligtinge van die verkoper en koper asook ander verpligtinge wat met lewering verband hou, soos byvoorbeeld die oorgang van risiko. Handelsterme doen weg met lang en omslagtige kontraksbedinge aangesien hulle in die vorm van afkortings in die kontrak figureer. Alhoewel handelsterme ‘n uniforme uitdrukking van gebruike in ‘n bepaalde gebied of bedryf verteenwoordig, is dit egter so dat die inhoud van handelsterme van land tot land, streek tot streek of van een tipe bedryf tot die ander verskil. INCOTERMS is ‘n poging om die inhoud van handelsterme te standaardiseer aan die hand van die mees eenvormige handelsgewoontes en –gebruike. Die doel van hierdie studie is om die effektiwiteit van INCOTERMS as ‘n vorm van standaardisering in die internasionale koopreg te ondersoek. Vir doeleindes van die ondersoek word die fokus beperk tot die oorgang van risiko. Al het nasionale regstelsels gewoonlik ‘n verstek risiko-reël in plek, verkies handelaars steeds om risiko by wyse van handelsterme te reguleer. Die studie ondersoek die regsposisie in die geval van FOB-, CIF-, en DDU-terme. ‘n Analise van risiko-regulering in ‘n aantal nasionale sisteme toon dat elk hul eie betekenis heg aan die inhoud van hierdie terme. Alhoewel die Weense Koopkonvensie geensins na handelsterme verwys nie, voer verskeie kommentatore aan dat die Konvensie se risiko-bestel verenigbaar is met dié van INCOTERMS en sal hierdie aspek gevolglik in meer besonderhede in die studie aangespreek word. Ten einde die effektiwiteit van INCOTERMS te bepaal, word daar ondersoek ingestel na hulle kenmerke, regsaard en beperkte aanwendingsgebied. Spesiale klem word gelê op die wisselwerking tussen die Weense Koopkonvensie en INCOTERMS asook die moontlikheid van interaksie en samewerking tussen die twee instrumente. Die gevolgtrekking is dat interaksie tussen die Koopkonvensie en INCOTERMS waarde toevoeg tot die internasionale koopreg deur die effektiwiteit van die internasionale besigheidstransaksie te verhoog en gevolglik internasionale handel te bevorder. / Harry Crossley Fund / NRF Thuthuka Fund

First part of this thesis is focused on general characteristic of transport insurance. It describes main distinctions between Cargo Insurance,Liability Insurance for Road Carriers and Liability Insurance for Freight Forwarders. The last part analyses current Czech insurance market related to transport insurance. It targets products of Kooperativa, Allianz and Česká pojišťovna, the biggest non-life insurer on the market. The thesis compares insured risks, territorial extent and claims handling procedures of these products.

Dans le chapitre 1, j’examine les résultats des fusions entre producteurs européens d’énergie en termes d’efficacité. Je calcule l’éco-efficacité en utilisant l’analyse de l’enveloppement des données et l’indice de productivité Malmquist-Luenberger. Je trouve que les fusions horizontales nationales, qui sont soigneusement réglementées, n’ont pas d’impact. Les fusions horizontales transfrontalières nuisent à l’éco-efficacité à court terme mais la stimulent deux ans après l’achèvement. Les fusions verticales nuisent à l’éco-efficacité. Je présente des suggestions de politiques concernant la réglementation des fusions. Le chapitre 2 est un travail conjoint avec Julian Hinz. Nous enquêtons sur les effets de l’embargo russe auto-imposé sur les importations de produits alimentaires en provenance des pays occidentaux. Nous construisons un modèle ricardien avec des liens sectoriels, des échanges de biens intermédiaires et une hétérogénéité sectorielle dans la production. L’étalonnage du modèle avec des données réelles permet de simuler les résultats de l’embargo en termes de changements de bien-être et de prix. Nous quantifions en outre l’impact sur les prix à la consommation en Russie à l’aide de la méthode des doubles différences. Le chapitre 3 est basé sur un article co-écrit avec Cristina Herghelegiu. Nous enquêtons sur l’utilisation des conditions commerciales internationales (Incoterms). Ce sont les schémas prédéfinis de la répartition des coûts et des risques entre les acheteurs et les vendeurs. Nous nous appuyons sur un ensemble de données très détaillées sur les exportations russes durant la période 2012-2015. Nous constatons que les grandes entreprises sont plus susceptibles d’assumer des responsabilités. Les gros acheteurs assument plus de responsabilités, quelle que soit la taille du vendeur, alors que les gros vendeurs le font uniquement lorsque leur partenaire est petit. C’est plus probable que les risques et les coûts sont sur les acheteurs dans les transactions de biens intermédiaires et de biens d’équipement. / In Chapter 1 I investigate firm-level efficiency outcomes of mergers between the European energy producers. I compute eco-efficiency using data envelopment analysis and the Malmquist-Luenberger productivity index. I find that carefully regulated domestic horizontal mergers do not have a statistically significant impact. Cross-border horizontal mergers hamper eco-efficiency in the short run but stimulate it two years after completion. Vertical mergers are detrimental to eco-efficiency. I put forward policy suggestions regarding the regulation of mergers. Chapter 2 is joint work with Julian Hinz. We investigate the effects of self-imposed Russian embargo on food import from Western countries. We build a Ricardian model with sectoral linkages, trade in intermediate goods and sectoral heterogeneity in production. The calibration of the model with real data allows to simulate the outcomes of embargo in terms of changes in welfare and prices. We further quantify the impact on consumer prices in Russia with the difference-in-differences estimator. Chapter 3 is based on a paper co-written with Cristina Herghelegiu. We investigate the use of International Commercial Terms. They are pre-defined schemes of repartition of costs and risks between buyers and sellers, which serve to mitigate the uncertainty. We rely on a highly detailed dataset on Russian exports over the 2012-2015 period. We find that big firms are more likely to take on responsibilities. Big buyers bear more responsibilities regardless of the seller size, whereas big sellers do so only when their partner is small. Risks and costs are more likely on buyers in transactions of intermediate and capital goods.

It is universally acknowledged that international trade and cooperation have become key drivers of SMEs. Indeed, the success of SMEs in the sales sector depends upon their capacity to conquer the foreign market and compete with larger companies. Many SMEs today, in particular those in Central and West Africa, are very much aware of this reality. However, because of differences between domestic laws and their maladjustment, many African SMEs still struggle to enter the international market and compete with larger companies. It is therefore obvious that any SMEs that want to succeed in international commerce today will be called upon to confront different regulations, whether domestic, regional or international, which are often shaped according to the realities and expectations of a particular environment. The challenge today is to regulate and harmonise these different legal systems, in order to render the law identical in numerous jurisdictions. This process of unifying the law internationally, in particular the law of sale, started in 1920 and culminated in 1988, with the implementation of the CISG. This Convention, which has become the primary law for international sales contracts, endeavours to deal with this problem of differences in law between states on a global scale, by attempting to achieve a synthesis between different legislations, such as civil law, common law, socialist law, and the law regarding industrialised and Third World countries. Even though the CISG appears to be a compromise between different legal systems, the fact remains that it is not yet applicable in many countries, especially those in Central and West Africa, which are mostly still ruled by domestic and regional law, namely the OHADA. The purpose of this study is to attempt to analyse and compare the OHADA’s Uniform Act Relating to Commercial Law to the CISG, in order to identify similarities and differences between the two, and to determine, with regard to the operating mode and structure of SMEs in West and Central Africa, which one of the two legislations is more appropriate. / Private Law / LL. M.