Estratégias como a transferência nuclear e a reprogramação induzida vêm sendo empregadas com o objetivo de induzir células somáticas a um estado pluripotente similar ao embrionário. O processo de reprogramação nuclear e extremamente desejável e possui importantes contribuições tanto no estudo da ciência básica como aplicada, como por exemplo, no aumento da eficiência das biotécnicas de produção animal ou na medicina, com a possibilidade de terapia celular autóloga. Uma série de estudos, porem, ainda são necessários para que tais aplicações sejam viáveis, uma vez que os mecanismos fundamentais das técnicas empregadas ainda não estão totalmente elucidados. Esta proposta teve como objetivo gerar células bovinas pluripotentes através da reprogramação direta e utilizá-las na transferência de núcleo para a produção animal visando o aumento da eficiência da reprogramação celular. Para tal, foi analisada a capacidade de indução e manutenção da pluripotência em células somáticas bovinas comparando-as com células humanas e equinas (células pluripotentes induzidas - iPSC), assim como a capacidade de desenvolvimento de embriões produzidos através da combinação das técnicas em bovinos. As células iPS derivadas neste estudo foram produzidas mediante transdução lentiviral de fatores de transcrição (OSKM) murinos, caracterizadas e utilizadas como doadoras de núcleo na clonagem. Resumidamente, oócitos bovinos obtidos de ovários provenientes de abatedouros foram maturados in vitro por 18h, enucleados e reconstruídos com células iPS (n=203 ou fibroblastos fetais bovinos (bFF, n=153), em cinco repetições. Após reconstrução os embriões foram ativados com ionomicina e 6-DMAP e cultivados in vitro até o estágio de blastocisto. Foram avaliadas as taxas de fusão, clivagem (48h após ativação) e desenvolvimento a blastocisto (192h após ativação) e os resultados foram submetidos ao teste de Qui-quadrado a 5% de significância. Foi possível a produção de embriões a partir de biPS, entretanto, este estudo evidenciou a necessidade de otimização da sincronização do ciclo celular em células iPS. Não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos quanto à capacidade de produção a blastocisto ou clivagem, porém o grupo reconstruído com células iPS apresentou uma menor taxa de fusão. Com a finalidade de entender a influência de fatores de transcrição específicos na reprogramação nuclear, bFF expressando OCT4 humano (hOCT4) e hSOX2 combinados com as proteínas repórteres fluorescentes vexGFP e mCitrine, respectivamente, foram submetidas à separação celular por citometria de fluxo e utilizados como doadores de núcleo. Foram utilizados bFF expressando OCT4-vexGFP (n=182, quadruplicata), SOX2-mCitrine (n=203, quadruplicata) ou células controle (não transduzidas, n=178 e n=149, em quadruplicata para grupos OCT4 e SOX2, respectivamente). Não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos nas características de capacidade de desenvolvimento in vitro estudadas. Em conclusão, este estudo relata a possibilidade de produção de células bovinas reprogramadas, além de também mostrar que a transferência de núcleo utilizando células expressando hSOX2 ou hOCT4, ou já reprogramadas, resulta em taxas similares de produção embrionária quando comparadas à utilização de células controle. O conhecimento da contribuição de cada fator utilizado na reprogramação induzida, aliado a estudos de comparação com a capacidade de desenvolvimento in vitro de organismos derivados de células reprogramadas deverá contribuir para o aumento da eficiência da clonagem e produção animal in vitro como para a medicina regenerativa. / Nuclear transfer and induced reprogramming are technologies usually used for the induction of somatic cells into an embryonic-like pluripotent status. The knowledgment of nuclear reprogramming process is highly desirable, leading to important contributions for both basic and applied sciences; for example, resulting in the increase in the efficiency of several animal biotechnologies, or else enabling autologous cellular therapy for medical purposes. However, basic studies are still needed in order to enable such applications, once the mechanisms controlling in vitro reprogramming are yet to be unraveled. This study aims to generate induced pluripotent bovine stem cells through direct reprogramming and its use in nuclear transfer in order to enhance the cellular reprogramming efficiency, For that, the potential of pluripotency induction and maintenance was analyzed in bovine somatic cells, comparing those with human and equine cells, as well as the potential of embryonic development after combining direct and nuclear reprogramming. iPS cells derived in this study were produced trought lentivirus transduction of mouse transcription factors (OSKM), further characterized and used as nuclei donors for cloning. In summary, bovine oocytes were obtained from slaughterhouse ovaries, in vitro matured for 18h, enucleated and reconstructed with iPS cells (n=203) or fetal fibroblasts (bFF, n=153), in five replicates. Embryos were reconstructed, chemically activated with ionomycin and 6-DMAP and cultured in vitro until blastocyst stage. Fusion, cleavage (48h post activation) and blastocyst developmental rates (192h post activation) were analyzed and result submitted to Chi-square test at 5% significance. biPS enabled embryo production, however further optimization on cell cycle synchronization still needs to be accomplished. No difference was observed between groups regarding cleavage or blastocyst developmental rates, however iPS group presented a reduced fusion rate when compared to control. For a better understanding on how reprogramming associated transcription factors could influence on nuclear reprogramming, bFF expressing human OCT4 (hOCT4) or hSOX2 combined with the fluorescent protein reporters vexGFP and mCitrine, respectively, were submitted to flow citometry cell sorting and used as nuclei donors. bFF expressing OCT4-vexGFP (n=182, quadruplicate), SOX2-mCitrine (n=203, quadruplicate) or control cells (non transduced, n=178 and n=149, in quadruplicate for OCT4 and SOX2, respectively) were used. No difference was observed between groups regarding the in vitro developmental potential rates. In conclusion, the present study reports the generation of reprogrammed bovine cells, and its use the nuclear transfer. Donor cells expressing hOCT4, hSOX2 or reprogrammed cells resulted in similar developmental in vitro rates when compared to controls. The knowledge of each reprogramming factor influence on in vitro reprogramming, together with comparison studies on in vitro developmental potential of organisms derived from reprogrammed cells should help enhancing not only the cloning efficiency and in vitro animal production, but also the regenerative medicine.

Scientific research is propelled by two objectives: Understanding and recognizing the essential biology of life, and deciphering this to uncover possible therapeutics in order to improve quality of life as well as relieve pain from disease. The aim of the work described in this thesis was to dissect the fundamental requirements of induced pluripotent stem cells both in pluripotency and differentiation with a particular focus on atrial specificity. Drug targeting of atrial-specific ion channels has been difficult because of lack of availability of appropriate cardiac cells, and preclinical testing studies have been carried out in non-cardiac cell lines, heterogeneous cardiac populations or animal models that have been unable to accurately represent human cardiomyocyte physiology. Therefore, we sought out to develop a preparation of cardiomyocytes showing an atrial phenotype with adult characteristics from human induced-pluripotent stem cells. A culture programme involving the use of Gremlin 2 allowed differentiation of cardiomyocytes with an atrial phenotype from human induced-pluripotent stem cells. When these differentiated cultures were dissociated into single myocytes a substantial fraction of cells showed a rod-shaped morphology with a single central nucleus that was broadly similar to that observed in cells isolated from atrial chambers of the heart. Immunolabelling of these myocytes for cardiac proteins (including RyR2 receptors, actinin-2, F-actin) showed striations with a sarcomere spacing of slightly less than 2um. The isolated rod-shaped cells were electrically quiescent unless stimulated to fire action potentials with an amplitude of 100 mV from a resting potential of approximately -70 mV. Proteins expressed included those for IK₁, IK_ur channels. Ca²⁺ Transients recorded from spontaneously beating cultures showed increases in amplitude in response to stimulation of adrenoceptors (both alpha and beta). With the aim of identifying key signaling mechanisms in directing cell fate, our new protocol allowed differentiation of human myocytes with an atrial phenotype and adult characteristics that show functional adrenoceptor signaling pathways and are suitable for investigation of drug effects.

Estratégias como a transferência nuclear e a reprogramação induzida vêm sendo empregadas com o objetivo de induzir células somáticas a um estado pluripotente similar ao embrionário. O processo de reprogramação nuclear e extremamente desejável e possui importantes contribuições tanto no estudo da ciência básica como aplicada, como por exemplo, no aumento da eficiência das biotécnicas de produção animal ou na medicina, com a possibilidade de terapia celular autóloga. Uma série de estudos, porem, ainda são necessários para que tais aplicações sejam viáveis, uma vez que os mecanismos fundamentais das técnicas empregadas ainda não estão totalmente elucidados. Esta proposta teve como objetivo gerar células bovinas pluripotentes através da reprogramação direta e utilizá-las na transferência de núcleo para a produção animal visando o aumento da eficiência da reprogramação celular. Para tal, foi analisada a capacidade de indução e manutenção da pluripotência em células somáticas bovinas comparando-as com células humanas e equinas (células pluripotentes induzidas - iPSC), assim como a capacidade de desenvolvimento de embriões produzidos através da combinação das técnicas em bovinos. As células iPS derivadas neste estudo foram produzidas mediante transdução lentiviral de fatores de transcrição (OSKM) murinos, caracterizadas e utilizadas como doadoras de núcleo na clonagem. Resumidamente, oócitos bovinos obtidos de ovários provenientes de abatedouros foram maturados in vitro por 18h, enucleados e reconstruídos com células iPS (n=203 ou fibroblastos fetais bovinos (bFF, n=153), em cinco repetições. Após reconstrução os embriões foram ativados com ionomicina e 6-DMAP e cultivados in vitro até o estágio de blastocisto. Foram avaliadas as taxas de fusão, clivagem (48h após ativação) e desenvolvimento a blastocisto (192h após ativação) e os resultados foram submetidos ao teste de Qui-quadrado a 5% de significância. Foi possível a produção de embriões a partir de biPS, entretanto, este estudo evidenciou a necessidade de otimização da sincronização do ciclo celular em células iPS. Não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos quanto à capacidade de produção a blastocisto ou clivagem, porém o grupo reconstruído com células iPS apresentou uma menor taxa de fusão. Com a finalidade de entender a influência de fatores de transcrição específicos na reprogramação nuclear, bFF expressando OCT4 humano (hOCT4) e hSOX2 combinados com as proteínas repórteres fluorescentes vexGFP e mCitrine, respectivamente, foram submetidas à separação celular por citometria de fluxo e utilizados como doadores de núcleo. Foram utilizados bFF expressando OCT4-vexGFP (n=182, quadruplicata), SOX2-mCitrine (n=203, quadruplicata) ou células controle (não transduzidas, n=178 e n=149, em quadruplicata para grupos OCT4 e SOX2, respectivamente). Não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos nas características de capacidade de desenvolvimento in vitro estudadas. Em conclusão, este estudo relata a possibilidade de produção de células bovinas reprogramadas, além de também mostrar que a transferência de núcleo utilizando células expressando hSOX2 ou hOCT4, ou já reprogramadas, resulta em taxas similares de produção embrionária quando comparadas à utilização de células controle. O conhecimento da contribuição de cada fator utilizado na reprogramação induzida, aliado a estudos de comparação com a capacidade de desenvolvimento in vitro de organismos derivados de células reprogramadas deverá contribuir para o aumento da eficiência da clonagem e produção animal in vitro como para a medicina regenerativa. / Nuclear transfer and induced reprogramming are technologies usually used for the induction of somatic cells into an embryonic-like pluripotent status. The knowledgment of nuclear reprogramming process is highly desirable, leading to important contributions for both basic and applied sciences; for example, resulting in the increase in the efficiency of several animal biotechnologies, or else enabling autologous cellular therapy for medical purposes. However, basic studies are still needed in order to enable such applications, once the mechanisms controlling in vitro reprogramming are yet to be unraveled. This study aims to generate induced pluripotent bovine stem cells through direct reprogramming and its use in nuclear transfer in order to enhance the cellular reprogramming efficiency, For that, the potential of pluripotency induction and maintenance was analyzed in bovine somatic cells, comparing those with human and equine cells, as well as the potential of embryonic development after combining direct and nuclear reprogramming. iPS cells derived in this study were produced trought lentivirus transduction of mouse transcription factors (OSKM), further characterized and used as nuclei donors for cloning. In summary, bovine oocytes were obtained from slaughterhouse ovaries, in vitro matured for 18h, enucleated and reconstructed with iPS cells (n=203) or fetal fibroblasts (bFF, n=153), in five replicates. Embryos were reconstructed, chemically activated with ionomycin and 6-DMAP and cultured in vitro until blastocyst stage. Fusion, cleavage (48h post activation) and blastocyst developmental rates (192h post activation) were analyzed and result submitted to Chi-square test at 5% significance. biPS enabled embryo production, however further optimization on cell cycle synchronization still needs to be accomplished. No difference was observed between groups regarding cleavage or blastocyst developmental rates, however iPS group presented a reduced fusion rate when compared to control. For a better understanding on how reprogramming associated transcription factors could influence on nuclear reprogramming, bFF expressing human OCT4 (hOCT4) or hSOX2 combined with the fluorescent protein reporters vexGFP and mCitrine, respectively, were submitted to flow citometry cell sorting and used as nuclei donors. bFF expressing OCT4-vexGFP (n=182, quadruplicate), SOX2-mCitrine (n=203, quadruplicate) or control cells (non transduced, n=178 and n=149, in quadruplicate for OCT4 and SOX2, respectively) were used. No difference was observed between groups regarding the in vitro developmental potential rates. In conclusion, the present study reports the generation of reprogrammed bovine cells, and its use the nuclear transfer. Donor cells expressing hOCT4, hSOX2 or reprogrammed cells resulted in similar developmental in vitro rates when compared to controls. The knowledge of each reprogramming factor influence on in vitro reprogramming, together with comparison studies on in vitro developmental potential of organisms derived from reprogrammed cells should help enhancing not only the cloning efficiency and in vitro animal production, but also the regenerative medicine.

L’ataxie de Friedreich (AF) est une maladie neurodégénérative récessive due à un déficit en frataxine, une protéine mitochondriale très conservée. Elle est souvent associée à une atteinte cardiaque. Le déficit en frataxine est responsable d’une diminution de l’activité des enzymes Fe-Set d’une accumulation mitochondriale de fer. Les cellules pluripotentes induites (iPS) générées par reprogrammation de cellules somatiques constituent un outil puissant pour le développement de modèles de maladies monogéniques. Les cardiomyocytes obtenus par différenciation des iPS de patients AF développent une atteinte mitochondriale après 1 mois en culture. Celle-ci se complète par l’apparition secondaire de dépôts de fer, visibles après 4 mois en culture, indiquant une progression dans la physiopathologie de la maladie. Notre étude montre la capacité de ces cardiomyocytes à modéliser le phénotype cardiaque de l’AF, offrant ainsi l’opportunité d’approfondir leur caractérisation physiopathologique. / Friedreich’s ataxia (FA) is a recessive neurodegenerative disorder due to a deficit of frataxin, a highly conserved mitochondrial protein. It is commonly associated with a hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The main pathophysiological consequences are a decrease of Fe-S enzyme activities and mitochondrial iron accumulation. The recent technical advances in the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) from somatic cells provide a powerful tool to create disease specific cellular models. Cardiomyocytes derived from FA-iPS present altered mitochondria after 1 month in culture. After four months in culture, iron deposits can be found in degenerating mitochondria, indicating a progression in the pathophysiology of the disease. Our study illustrates the ability of iPS-derived cardiomyocytes to model the cardiac phenotype associated with FA, and offers new opportunities to further investigate pathological mechanisms linked to frataxin deficiency.

La génération de cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPSC) est très prometteuse en médecine régénérative, pour la modélisation physiopathologique et le criblage de nouveaux médicaments. A l’origine, des cellules somatiques ont été reprogrammées en iPSC par l'expression forcée de facteurs de transcription (FT) impliqués dans les cellules souches embryonnaires. Depuis, de nombreuses lignées d’iPSC ont été générées mais les vecteurs actuels les plus représentés et efficaces pour exprimer les FT sont les virus intégratifs. Ils comportent du matériel génétique. Des stratégies alternatives ont été développées dans un contexte de sécurisation et de transfert clinique mais sont ont encore besoin d’être acceptées par les comités d’éthique. La méthode la plus sûre et rationnelle serait alors d’apporter ces FT directement sous forme protéique mais le défi est de traverser les membranes. Dans ce contexte, notre laboratoire a développé un peptide de pénétration cellulaire (CPP) basé sur le FT ZEBRA du virus d’Epstein-Barr. La séquence impliquée dans la prise en charge cellulaire a été caractérisée au laboratoire et se nomme MD (Minimal Domain). Elle est capable de vectoriser des protéines et des biomolécules de haut poids moléculaire via un mécanisme indépendant de l'endocytose, permettant leur internalisation sous une forme biologiquement active. Dans ce projet, nous avons produit et purifié les protéines Oct4, Sox2, Nanog, Lin28, Klf4 et c-Myc chacune fusionnée au CPP MD. Ce domaine n'interfère pas avec la capacité d'Oct4 à lier sa séquence cible d’ADN. Le traitement in vitro de cellules primaires conduit à l’internalisation des protéines MD en 30 minutes à 1 heure. MD-Oct4 et MD-Nanog peuvent être localisés au noyau en 3 heures. Dans un contexte de reprogrammation, la combinaison de MD-Oct4, MD-Sox2, MD-Nanog et MD-Lin28 lors de traitements répétés conduit à l'activation transcriptionnelle de gènes cibles composant le réseau de pluripotence. / The generation of induced Pluripotent Stem Cell (iPSC) holds great promise for regenerative medicine, disease modelling and drug screening. Leading the original cell to an iPSC has been originally made by the forced expression of Transcription Factors (TF) involved in embryonic stem cells. Since the discovery of those mechanisms, many teams have engineered iPSC by well-defined cell culture tools such as the use of retroviruses in order to express TF. Those techniques use genetic material. Delivery techniques have evolved but most of reprogramming experiments still need TF. Development of alternative strategies has been conducted in a context of clinical application but still needs to be accepted by ethics comities. Thus, the use of recombinant proteins instead of genetic material is safe and rational but the challenge is to access the intracellular medium. In this context, our laboratory has developed a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) based on the Epstein-Barr virus ZEBRA TF. The sequence implicated in cellular uptake has been characterized and is named MD (Minimal Domain). It is able to translocate high molecular weight proteins in an endocytosis-independent mechanism, allowing the internalization of cargos in fully biologically active form. Here we develop 6 MD fusions at the N-terminus of the following TF: Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, cMyc, Nanog & Lin28. This domain does not interfere with Oct4 capacity to associate with its own DNA sequence. Moreover, MD fused proteins transduce in vitro treated cells in 30 minutes to 1 hour ; MD-Oct4 & MD-Nanog can be localized in the nucleus after 3 hours only. In a context of reprogramming experiences, the combination of MD-Oct4, MD-Sox2, MD-Nanog and MD-Lin28 in repeated treatment leads to the activation of target genes transcription such as those constituting the pluripotency network.

La Granulomatose Septique Chronique (CGD) est une maladie génétique rare de l’immunodéficience innée affectant les cellules phagocytaires (neutrophiles, macrophages). Elle est causée par des mutations dans les sous-unités du complexe NADPH oxydase formé du cytochrome b558 membranaire (NOX2 associé à p22phox) et de facteurs cytosoliques (p47phox, p67phox et p40phox). La déficience de ce complexe enzymatique va conduire à l’absence de formation de formes réactives de l’oxygène (FRO) microbicides et donc à l’apparition d’infections graves et récurrentes très tôt dans l’enfance. La chimioprophylaxie à vie permet de protéger ces patients mais peut être responsable d’effets indésirables. La seule thérapie curative est la transplantation de moelle osseuse mais tous les patients ne peuvent en bénéficier, et la thérapie génique n’est pas encore envisageable. Il y a donc un manque réel de nouvelles thérapies pour cette maladie. Cependant pour développer de nouveaux traitements, il faut disposer de modèles physiopathologiques pertinents. Or, les modèles existants sont imparfaits ou manquants. Le but de notre travail est donc de produire des modèles cellulaires et animaux de la CGD pour développer dans un second temps, une nouvelle approche thérapeutique basée sur l’utilisation de protéoliposomes.Grâce à leurs propriétés de pluripotence et d’auto-renouvellement à l’infini, les cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPS) sont un outil puissant pour la modélisation physiopathologique. Ainsi, à partir de fibroblastes de patients atteints de CGD reprogrammés en cellules iPS, nous avons mis au point un protocole efficace de différenciation hématopoïétique in vitro en neutrophiles et macrophages. Nous avons montré que ces cellules phagocytaires sont matures et reproduisent parfaitement le phénotype déficient en FRO des patients CGD. Nous avons donc obtenu des modèles cellulaires pertinent modélisant trois formes génétiques de CGD, la CGD liée à l’X et deux formes autosomiques récessives, CGDAR22 et CGDAR47.Nous avons ensuite réalisé la preuve du concept de l’efficacité de protéoliposomes thérapeutiques sur les macrophages modélisés de la forme CGDX, la forme génétique la plus fréquente (70 % des cas) due à l’absence du cytochrome b558 membranaire (NOX2/p22phox). Grâce à une collaboration avec la start-up Synthelis SAS, des liposomes contenant le cytochrome b558 au niveau de la membrane lipidique ont été produits dans un système d’expression acellulaire basé sur l’utilisation d’extraits d’Escherichia coli. Ces liposomes NOX2/p22phox sont capables de reconstituer une enzyme NADPH oxydase fonctionnelle in vitro et de délivrer le cytochrome b558 à la membrane plasmique des macrophages CGDX qui présentent alors une restauration de l’activité NADPH oxydase avec la production de FRO.Enfin, nous nous sommes proposés de générer des souris dites « humanisées » par transplantation de cellules souches hématopoïétiques CD34+ capables de prise de greffe et de reconstitution hématopoïétique dans des souris immunodéficientes. A partir de cellules iPS saines, nous avons réussi à produire des cellules hématopoïétiques CD34+ possédant un potentiel hématopoïétique in vitro. Cependant, malgré des résultats encourageants, aucune prise de greffe in vivo n’a pu être réellement confirmée à ce jour.Pour conclure, nous avons donc montré au cours de ce projet, la production de modèles cellulaires de trois formes génétiques de CGD à partir de cellules iPS. Puis le modèle de macrophages CGDX nous a permis de faire la preuve de l’efficacité d’une nouvelle thérapie in vitro, une « enzymothérapie substitutive liposomale », qui pourrait à terme, offrir une alternative thérapeutique pour le traitement des infections aigües pulmonaires des patients CGD réfractaires aux traitements antibiotiques et antifongiques conventionnels. / Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD) is a rare inherited pathology of the innate immune system that affects the phagocytic cells (neutrophils, macrophages). This disease is caused by mutations in the subunits of the NADPH oxidase complex composed of the membrane cytochrome b558 (NOX2 associated with p22phox) and the cytosolic components (p47phox, p67phox et p40phox). Dysfunction in this enzymatic complex leads to the absence of microbicidal reactive oxygen species (ROS) and therefore to the development of recurrent and life-threatening infections in early childhood. Life-long prophylaxis is used to protect these patients but it may be responsible for side effects. Bone marrow transplantation is the only curative treatment but it can not be proposed to all the patients. In addition, gene therapy is not possible up to now. So there is a real lack of new therapies for this disease. However, to develop new therapeutic approaches, relevant physiopathological models must be available. Actually, existing models are imperfect or missing. Thus, the goal of our work is to produce cellular and animal models of CGD to develop a new proteoliposome-based therapy.Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a powerful tool for physiopathologic modeling due to their pluripotency and self-renewal properties. Using CGD patient-specific iPSCs regrogrammed from fibroblasts, we developped an efficient protocol for in vitro hematopoietic differentiation into neutrophils and macrophages. We showed that the phagocytic cells produced are mature and reproduce the ROS-deficient phenotype found in CGD patients. Thus, we obtained relevant cellular models for three genetic forms of CGD: X-linked CGD and the two autosomal recessive forms AR22CGD and AR47CGD.Then, we demonstrated the proof-of-concept of the efficacy of therapeutic proteoliposomes on X-CGD iPS-derived macrophages. Indeed, X-CGD is the main form of the disease (70% of cases) and is caused by the absence of the membrane cytochrome b558 (NOX2/p22phox). Thanks to a collaboration with the start-up Synthelis SAS, liposomes integrating the cytochrome b558 into lipid bilayers were produced in an E. coli-based cell-free protein expression system. These NOX2/p22phox liposomes were able to reconstitute a functional NADPH oxidase enzyme in vitro and to deliver the cytochrome b558 at the plasma membrane of X-CGD macrophages, leading to restore the NADPH oxidase activity with a ROS production.Finally, we proposed to generate « humanized » mice models with a human immune system after transplantation of CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells able to engraft and reconstitute long-term hematopoiesis in immunodeficient mice. Using healthy iPSCs, we successfuly produced CD34+ hematopoietic cells with in vitro hematopoietic potential. However, no in vivo engraftment was really confirmed yet.In conclusion, during this project, we produced cellular models of three genetic forms of CGD using patient-specific iPSCs. Then, X-CGD macrophages were used to demonstrate in vitro the efficacy of a new therapy. This « liposomal replacement enzymotherapy » could, in the future, represents a curative alternative against life-threatening lung infections refractory to conventional antibiotic and antifungal therapy.

O estudo de mutações genéticas como causa das cardiomiopatias teve início com a descoberta de mutações em proteínas sarcoméricas que levavam à Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica, desde então, alterações em diversos genes, de proteínas contráteis ou não, foram descobertas e listadas como a responsável pelo desenvolvimento de diferentes cardiomiopatias. Estudar o efeito destas mutações nos cardiomiócitos destes pacientes permanecia um desafio devido ao difícil acesso às células cardíacas. Em 2007, a técnica de reprogramação de células somáticas em células-tronco pluripotentes foi descoberta. Pelo fato das células-tronco pluripotentes serem capazes de ser diferenciadas em cardiomiócitos, surgiu-se a possibilidade de se estudar essas células de indivíduos portadores das mutações genéticas. Esta tese teve como objetivo a criação de um modelo celular para estudar a Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica causada por mutações genéticas. Inicialmente foi estabelecido um protocolo de reprogramação celular para se estabelecer linhagens celulares das células-tronco induzidas de um paciente com mutação no gene MYH7. Tendo as células caracterizadas, elas foram diferenciadas em cardiomiócitos através de um protocolo adaptado de protocolos de diferenciação direta em cardiomiócitos. Os cardiomiócitos gerados apresentaram características moleculares e funcionais semelhantes à cardiomiócitos primários humanos e foi visualizado, através de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, que os cardiomiócitos do paciente com alteração genética possuíam grande proporção de sarcômeros desorganizados em comparação a cardiomiócitos de indivíduos saudáveis. Em conclusão, o modelo celular desenvolvido sugere ser possível o estudo do efeito de mutações genéticas em Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica. / The study of genetic mutations as the cause of cardiomyopathies initiates with the discovery of mutations in sarcomeric proteins genes that lead to Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. Since then, mutations in several genes, coding to sarcomeric proteins or not, were discovered and listed as the reason to the cardiomyopathies. To study the effect of these mutations was a challenge due the difficulty to accesses cardiac cells. In 2007, the technique of reprogramming somatic cells into pluripotent stem cells was discovered. The fact that the pluripotent stem cells are capable of differentiating into cardiomyocytes opened the opportunity to study these cells from individuals with genetic mutations. This thesis aimed to create a cellular model to study Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy caused by genetic mutations. Initially we established a cell reprogramming protocol to establish induced stem cells lines from a patient with mutation in MYH7 gene. Having characterized the cells, they were differentiated into cardiomyocytes using an adapted protocol from direct differentiation protocols. Cardiomyocytes generated showed molecular and functional characteristics similar to human primary cardiomyocytes and were visualized by means of transmission electron microscopy. The patient\'s cardiomyocytes had a large proportion of disorganized sarcomeres compared to cardiomyocytes from healthy individuals. In conclusion, the cell model developed suggests that it is possible to study the effect of genetic mutation in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy using induced pluripotent stem cells derived cardiomyocytes.

Os vírus são eficazes na transferência de genes em células devido aos seus mecanismos especializados. No entanto, vírus como veículos de entrega de genes podem acarretar em problemas, particularmente quando proposto para reprogramar células somáticas em células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas (iPS) visando utilização terapêutica. No presente estudo, procurou-se desenvolver um sistema alternativo para entregar diretamente proteínas nucleares (Oct4, Sox2, KLF4, e c-Myc) fusionadas com o domínio de transdução de proteína TAT, para promover a reprogramação de fibroblastos embrionários de camundongos (MEF) ou células mesenquimais derivadas de tecido adiposo humano (hASC) em células iPS. Primeiramente o PTD TAT ou TAT- foi fundido a proteína verde fluorescente (GFP) como modelo para prova de princípio e padronização detalhada. Inesperadamente, TAT-GFP produzido e secretado pelas células NIH-3T3 produtora não foi capaz de ser detectado no meio de cultura por verificação quantitativa fluorimétrica, nem foi capaz de ser detectada em células-alvo, por citometria de fluxo, depois de co-cultura em transwells. Essa observação pode ser explicada por: (1) ineficiência desse tipo de célula em secretar proteínas e (2) falta de resistência à clivagem por endoproteases furinas. Para contornar esses fatores limitantes usou-se citometria de fluxo para avaliar as melhores condições para a transfecção por seis diferentes tipos de células (CHO, NIH-3T3, HT1080, HEK-293A, HEK-293t e COS-7) com TAT (modificada para ser resistente à furinas) fundido a GFP. Células 293t-TAT-GFP exibiram a maior eficiência de transfecção e também de secreção. O mesmo pôde ser observado para as seis linhagens celulares expressando fatores de transcrição nucleares TAT, determinados por ELISA. Em seguida, diferentes estratégias de entrega foram testadas. A primeira foi baseada na co-cultura de uma mistura de células produtoras com MEF ou hASC. No entanto, não foi possível observar a reprogramação devido à morte celular. A segunda foi baseada na concentração de meio condicionado de cultura de células por centrifugação usando colunas Amicon, trocando o meio a cada 24h, em quatro ciclos. No entanto, apesar da presença de algumas colônias após 20-30 dias, nenhuma colônia verdadeira iPS foi obtida. Na sequência, as células foram tratadas com cada proteína de forma independente, e as demais foram substituídas pelo retrovírus correspondente, trocando meio a cada 72h, em quatro ciclos. Essa estratégia, apesar de permitir verificar a função de cada proteína, também não resultou em reprogramação. Este achado pode ser explicado pela diferenciação celular induzida por BCS, que também é concentrado no processo. Assim, passou-se a adaptação de \"células produtoras\" em condições de cultura livre de soro, para enriquecer a produção dos fatores nucleares individuais, necessários para a reprogramação. A otimização sistematizada deste processo está sendo realizada em parceria com o IPT e deve resultar em quantidades de proteína de fusão suficientes para o teste final da hipótese proposta. Em conjunto, são apresentados os dados da geração de linhagens celulares expressando estavelmente os vários fatores de transcrição e estratégias para melhorar a eficiência necessária para a produção iPS. Esta nova estratégia garante uma produção eficiente de TAT fundida a fatores nucleares de reprogramação e sua eficácia para promover a reprogramação de células somáticas de maneira livre de vírus merece ser investigado futuramente / Viruses are effective at transferring genes into cells by its specialized mechanisms. However, viruses as gene delivery vehicles entail problems, particularly when proposed to reprogram somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) for therapeutic uses. In the present study, we aimed to develop an alternative system for directly delivering nuclear proteins (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc) fused with TAT protein transduction domain to promote reprogramming of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) or human adipose tissue derived mesenchymal cells (hASC) into iPS cells. First TAT- or TAT- PTD was fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a proof of principle model and for detailed standardization. Unexpectedly, TAT-GFP produced and secreted by NIH-3T3 producer cells was not detected in the culture medium by quantitative fluorimetric verification, nor detected on target cells, by flow cytometry, after being co-cultured using transwells. This observation maybe explained by: (1) inefficiency of this cell type to be transfected and to secrete proteins and (2) lack of resistance to furin endoproteases cleavage on Golgi of TAT sequence. To circumvent these limiting factors we used flow cytometer to assess the best conditions for transfection in six different cell types (CHO, NIH-3T3, HT1080, HEK-293A, HEK-293t and COS-7) with TAT- (a modified PTD to be resistant to furin endoproteases) fused to GFP. 293t-TAT-GFP cells displayed the highest transfection efficiency and secretion levels. The same could be observed for the six cell lineages expressing TAT- nuclear transcription factors, determined by ELISA.Next, different delivery strategies were tested for TAT- nuclear transcription factor system. Co-culturing a mix of producer cells with MEF or hASC resulted in not reprogramming and this was associated with cell death. The second was based on the use of microconcentrated conditioned cell culture medium, changed every 24h, in four cycles. However, despite the presence of some emerging colonies after 20-30 days, no true iPS colonies were obtained. Then, cells were treated with each protein independently, and the others were replaced by the corresponding retrovirus, changing cell medium every 72h, in four cycles. We verified the reprogramming potential of each protein, but no true colonies were obtained.One possibility for this finding is that BCS is also concentrated by centrifugation and may induce cell differentiation. To circumvent these problems, we have started the adaptation of producer cells in a serum-free culture condition to enrich the production of the individual factors required for reprogramming. This optimization process is taking place in collaboration with the IPT and shall result in large amounts of the fusion protein to finally test the proposed hypothesis. Altogether, we presented the generation of several cell lines stably expressing the transcription factors and strategies to improve the efficiency required for iPS production. This novel strategy guarantees efficient production of TAT-fused reprogramming nuclear factors and its efficacy to promote somatic cells reprogramming in a virus-free manner deserves to be further investigated

A reprogramação nuclear de uma célula somática a um estado embrionário tem diversas aplicações, como pesquisas básicas na biologia do desenvolvimento, terapia celular, melhoramento genético em animais de produção e conservação de espécies. As principais técnicas utilizadas para a reprogramação nuclear são a transferência nuclear de células somáticas (TNCS) e a geração de células tronco pluripotente induzidas (iPS). Muitos trabalhos têm mostrado uma baixa eficiência no processo de reprogramação nuclear nas duas técnicas, além disso, modificações epigenéticas tem sido apontada como a principal barreira para uma reprogramação nuclear eficiente. Por esse motivo, medidas como a utilização de células menos diferenciadas e/ou alteração do perfil epigenético das células somáticas podem aumentar a eficiência destas técnicas. Por isso, o objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar a influência de marcas epigenéticas em células bovinas utilizadas na reprogramação nuclear mediada por TNCS ou superexpressão de genes relacionados a pluripotêcia (iPS). Para isso, utilizamos 3 abordagens. Primeiro, analisamos marcações epigenéticas relacionadas ao desenvolvimento embrionário e pluripotência (H3K9me2, H3K9me3, H3K9ac, 5mC e 5hmC) em diferentes tipos celulares, analisamos a expressão gênica de genes responsáveis por essas marcações em células de diferentes tecidos (ex. células tronco mesenquimais (MSC) e fibroblastos) e as utilizamos como doadoras de núcleo na TNCS. Na segunda e a terceira abordagem, utilizamos células com menores níveis de H3K9me2 para a geração de iPS e na TNCS, respectivamente. Além disso, por se mostrar eficiente na TNCS, analisamos o efeito da sincronização do ciclo celular por privação de soro fetal bovino (SFB) na geração de células iPS. Com o intuito de diminuir os níveis de H3K9me2, as células foram tratadas com UNC0638, um inibidor especifico das metiltransferases de histona G9a/GLP. Nossos resultados do primeiro experimento mostraram que as MSC podem ser utilizadas como doadoras de núcleo na TNCS, no entanto, mesmo com algumas diferenças na expressão gênica em relação aos fibroblastos, a produção de blastocistos não foi diferente entre as duas células. No segundo experimento, as células privadas de SFB geraram mais colônias que as células controle, enquanto que as células tratadas não apresentaram diferença. Por último, as células tratadas com o UNC0638 apresentaram um menor nível de metilação no DNA em zigotos em relação às células controle. Os resultados encontrados neste trabalho podem contribuir para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos epigenéticos envolvidos na reprogramação nuclear de bovinos / Nuclear reprogramming of somatic cells to embryonic state has several aplications, such as basic research on developmental biology, cell therapy, genetic improvement in livestock animals and preservation of endangered species. The principal techniques utilized to achieve nuclear reprogramming are Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) and induced pluripotency. Several works has reported low efficiency rates of nuclear reprogramming when these techniques are used to reprogram somatic cells. Moreover, epigenetic modifications acquired during development act as epigenetic barrier to the complete reprogramming process. For this reason, strategies such as use of less differentiated cells and/or modification of epigenetic profile of somatic cells might increase the efficiency these techniques. The objective of this work was investigate the influence of epigenetic marks in bovine cells utilized on nuclear reprogramming experiments mediated by SCNT or induced pluripotency. To investigate it, we used three approaches. First, we analyzed the epigenetic marks related to the embryonic development and pluripotency (e.g H3K9me2, H3K9me3, H3K9ac, 5mC and 5hmC), gene expression of genes involved in these epigenetic marks in different tissues (i.e. mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and fibroblasts) and their use as nuclear donor cells on SCNT procedure. Regarding the second and the third approach, we utilized cells with reduced levels of H3K9me2 to generate iPS cells and cloned embryos, respectively. Furthermore, since serum starvation has been demonstrated increase SCNT developmental rates, we assessed the effect of cell cycle synchronization mediated by serum starvation on nuclear reprogramming using iPS cells. Aiming decrease the levels of H3K9me2, cells were treated with UNC0638, a chemical probe that works as a specific inhibitor of the histone methyltransferases G9a and its counterpartner GLP. Our results showed that MSC are suitable to be used as nuclear donors on SCNT procedures, however, in spite of differences on gene expression comparing with fibroblasts, the embryonic developmental rates were not improved. On the second experiment, cells privated of fetal calf serum produced more iPS cells colonies than control cells, whereas cells treated with UNC did not show differences when compared with untreated cells. Lastly, UNC treated donor cells treated produced cloned zygotes with lower levels of DNA methylation compared to zygotes derivated from untreated cells. The results presented here will contribute to the better understanding of the epigenetic mechanisms involved on bovine nuclear reprogramming

La sclérose latérale amyotrophique (SLA) est une maladie neurodégénérative incurable de l’adulte qui affecte principalement les motoneurones. Les mécanismes conduisant à la mort des motoneurones restent mal connus, notamment du fait de l'hétérogénéité de la maladie et du manque d'accès aux neurones humains affectés. La technologie des cellules souches pluripotentes induites humaines (iPSc) est un outil prometteur pour la modélisation de la SLA, car elle offre la possibilité unique d'obtenir et d’étudier des motoneurones humains.Des clones d’iPSc de deux sujets témoins ont été générés et nous avons comparé plusieurs protocoles afin de mettre au point un protocole efficace de différenciation des iPSc en motoneurones. Les cultures obtenues étaient hétérogènes et contenaient différents types de neurones et des précurseurs neuraux. Afin de pouvoir étudier des mécanismes intrinsèques aux motoneurones dans la SLA, nous avons développé une nouvelle technique pour purifier les motoneurones. Cette technique a consisté à trier les motoneurones par FACS en combinant l'utilisation d'un vecteur lentiviral rapporteur exprimant une protéine fluorescente sous le contrôle d'un promoteur spécifique des motoneurones, et d'un anticorps monoclonal dirigé contre le récepteur aux neurotrophines p75. Cette double sélection a permis l'isolement efficace de motoneurones purs. En parallèle, la technologie iPSc a été utilisée pour établir des modèles cellulaires de la SLA. Des clones de cellules iPS ont été générés à partir d’un patient avec une forme familiale de la SLA présentant une mutation dans le gène TARDBP (codant pour une protéine de liaison à l’ADN, TDP-43) et un patient atteint d’une forme sporadique de SLA. Afin de valider nos modèles, nous avons recherché des phénotypes caractéristiques de la maladie au cours de la différenciation des iPSc : i) la formation d’agrégats cytoplasmiques, ii) des altérations de génération et de survie des motoneurones, iii) des défauts de croissance neuritique. / Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal adult-onset neurodegenerative disorder primarily affecting motor neurons. Mechanisms leading to motor neuron death in ALS are poorly understood mostly because of disease heterogeneity and lack of access to affected cells. The induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSc) technology provides the opportunity to obtain and study human motor neurons and is therefore a promising tool for ALS modeling.IPSc clones from control subjects were generated, and we compared several protocols in order to set up an efficient protocol for iPSc differentiation into motor neurons. The obtained cultures were heterogenous, comprising different neuron subtypes and neural precursors. To allow investigation of intrinsic disease mechanisms in ALS motor neurons, we developed a new technique to purify motor neurons by FACS sorting. By combining the use of a lentiviral vector expressing a fluorescent protein under control of a motoneuron-specific promoter and of a monoclonal antibody directed against the p75 neurotrophin receptor, isolation of exquisitely pure motor neurons was achieved. In parallel, iPSc technology was used to establish cellular models of ALS. IPSc were generated from one patient with familial ALS carrying a mutation in the TARDBP gene (encoding a DNA-binding protein, TDP-43) and one patient with sporadic ALS. To validate our models, we investigated characteristic disease phenotypes during iPSc differentiation, including i) cytoplasmic aggregate formation, ii) motor neuron generation and survival defects, iii) neurite growth alterations.