Cette thèse porte sur les réformes des systèmes de retraite dans les pays en développement et s’articule autour de deux axes : l’efficacité des systèmes en place pour assurer aux affiliés un niveau de revenu suffisant à la retraite ; et l’extension de la couverture aux travailleurs informels et aux personnes âgées non couvertes. Nous faisons d’abord une étude de 7 cas de pays d’Amérique latine ayant mené des réformes de passage de la répartition à la capitalisation. Elle montre que les effets observés s’écartent de l’impact escompté en ce qui concerne le niveau des retraites obtenu et la formalisation de l’emploi. Nous considérons ensuite le cas du Maroc et le processus de réforme en cours. En nous appuyant sur les données démographiques et financières des régimes, nous analysons la capacité actuelle et future du système à garantir aux retraités un niveau de revenu proche de celui des actifs. Nous montrons notamment que la réforme actuellement envisagée est insuffisante. Nous effectuons enfin, à partir de données microéconomiques marocaines, deux études empiriques sur la question de l’extension de la couverture retraite. La première vise à mesurer l’emploi informel et à identifier ses caractéristiques et ses déterminants. Les résultats indiquent que les trois quarts des travailleurs hors secteur agricole ne sont pas affiliés au système de sécurité sociale et que cet emploi informel est largement subi et non le résultat d’un comportement d’évasion. La deuxième étudie la question de la pauvreté des personnes âgées et l’opportunité de créer une pension de solidarité. Les résultats montrent que les ménages où vivent les personnes âgées sont plus pauvres que les autres, que la cohabitation intergénérationnelle est forte et que la création d’une pension minimale permettrait de sortir un grand nombre de ménages de la pauvreté pour un coût inférieur à 0,5% du PIB. / This thesis investigates pension reforms in developing countries, their ability to provide retirees with a decent income, and the issue of extending their coverage to the entire population, including informal workers. The first two chapters assess the transition from pay-as-you-go to fully funded or multipillar schemes. A case study based on macro-data and pension funds data from 7 Latin American countries show that such reforms had very low effect on coverage rates and labour formalization and did not succeed in protecting people from old-age poverty. The third chapter describes the Moroccan pension system and shows that the reform currently in discussion is not sufficient either to achieve this goal. The last two chapters are empirical studies based on Moroccan labour force survey and household survey data. The first one draws a complete panorama of the non-contributing share of the population and estimates the probability of informal employment depending on both individual and professional characteristics. The second one studies the economic lives of the elderly. Overall results confirm that the informal labour market is heterogeneous and that most informal jobs are involuntary, not a choice made by workers to avoid paying taxes and social security contributions. It also appears that households that include aged members are poorer, the intergenerational cohabitation is high and therefore, creating a solidarity pension will help alleviate poverty at a cost not exceeding 0.5% of GDP.

Cette thèse traite deux questions relatives aux inégalités salariales entre hommes et femmes. Le premier et le deuxième chapitres analysent l'impact du commerce international sur les écarts de salaire entre hommes et femmes, tandis que le troisième chapitre se pose la question de l'influence du secteur informel sur ces écarts. Le premier chapitre montre que le commerce international peut avoir des effets opposés sur l'écart de salaire entre hommes et femmes via le canal de la concurrence. Les prédictions du modèle théorique sont testées par une analyse empirique des écarts de salaire en Uruguay sur une période incluant la création du Mercosur. Le deuxième chapitre étudie la façon dont l'intégration commerciale peut modifier les écarts de salaire entre hommes et femmes différemment en fonction des qualifications. Le modèle théorique montre que le commerce international creuse les écarts salariaux entre hommes et femmes qualifiés et réduit cet écart entre hommes et femmes non qualifiées. Le troisième chapitre conduit une analyse empirique des écarts de salaire entre hommes et femmes dans les emplois formels et informels au Brésil. Alors que l'écart brut de salaire est plus élevé dans le secteur informel que dans le secteur formel, les résultats indiquent que cette différence est un artefact de la composition de l'emploi dans les deux secteurs. Dans le secteur informel, la correction du biais de sélection réduit le différentiel de salaire, ajusté des caractéristiques productives, qui n'est plus significatif. Dans le secteur formel, en revanche, l'écart de salaire, ajusté des caractéristiques productives et corrigé de la sélection, demeure élevé et fortement significatif. / This dissertation consists of three essays on gender wage inequality. The two first chapters explore the impact of international trade on the gender wage gap, while the third chapter deals with the role of the informal sector in shaping the gender wage gap. By integrating the taste-based theory of discrimination and the oligopolistic trade literature, the first chapter shows that international trade can have two opposite effects on the gender wage gap through the channel of competition. The predictions of the models are confirmed by an empirical analysis of gender wage gaps in Uruguay following the Mercosur trade agreement. The second chapter investigates how international trade impacts the gender wage gap at different points of the skill distribution, by incorporating statistical discrimination into a model of trade with heterogeneous firms and workers. The model shows trade integration reduces the gender wage gap among high-skilled workers but reduces the gender wage gap among unskilled workers. The third chapter investigates whether the gender wage gap differs in the formal and the informal segments of the labour market in Brazil. It shows that the higher raw wage gap in the informal sector is an artificial effect of the different sorting of men and women into formal and informal jobs. First, the female advantage in observable productive characteristics is stronger among formal employees. Second, selection into work status differs between men and women. In the informal sector, the selection-corrected gender wage gap is reduced and not significant anymore. In the formal sector, however, the selection-corrected gender wage gap is large and highly significant.

[pt] A presente dissertação tem como tema o trabalho informal precarizado utilizado como meio de sobrevivência por trabalhadoras lésbicas negras des/infeminilizadas, cujos efeitos desdobram-se na precarização das suas condições de vida manifesta na falta de acesso à renda e ao trabalho, à saúde pública de qualidade, à assistência social, no histórico de trabalho infantil, no abandono familiar, na situação de privação de liberdade, no racismo estrutural e na atuação do heteropatriarcado. Este trabalho tem por objetivos analisar como as lésbicas negras infeminilizadas, no espaço urbano do Rio de Janeiro, resistem desempenhando atividades precarizadas no âmbito do trabalho informal, compreender suas condições de vida e de trabalho, verificar fatores de desproteção social que precedem a atuação das trabalhadoras lésbicas negras des/infeminilizadas no mercado informal de trabalho e analisar como a lesbofobia, o racismo e a misoginia, enquanto formas de manifestação da violência inerente à sociedade capitalista, racista e heteropatriarcal, estão presentes no cotidiano das trabalhadoras lésbicas negras des/infeminilizadas. Para tanto, foram realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas para que as trabalhadoras expusessem como lidam com o trabalho informal e abordassem temas sobre suas condições de vida considerando os elementos precarizantes desse tipo de trabalho. A análise dos dados obtidos tem como referenciais teóricos os estudos sobre precarização no mundo do trabalho, teóricas do feminismo negro e as teóricas lésbicas materialistas e francófonas. Desta forma, a relevância desse estudo se evidencia no olhar para as particularidades dessas trabalhadoras compreendendo suas condições de vida, a partir do trabalho informal precarizado, nas quais foram verificadas vulnerabilidades e desproteções sociais que atingem essas mulheres que não expressam a feminilidade hegemônica, onde também cabe o desejo de construir um futuro com trabalho decente e seguro. / [en] This dissertation focuses on precarious informal employment used as a means of survival by non-femme black lesbian workers, whose effects unfold in the precariousness of their living conditions, manifested in the lack of access to income and work, to high-quality public health, to social assistance, and in a history of child labor, family abandonment, a situation of liberty deprivation, structural racism and the effects of heteropatriarchy in their lives. This study aims to analyze how non-femme black lesbians resist in the urban space of Rio de Janeiro by performing precarious activities in informal employment, as well as to understand their living and working conditions, verify factors of social lack of protection that precede the performance of non-femme black lesbian workers in the informal labor market and analyze how lesbophobia, racism, and misogyny, as forms of manifestation of the violence inherent in a capitalist, racist and heteropatriarchal society, are present in their daily lives. For this purpose, semi-structured interviews were conducted so that the workers could explain how they deal with informal employment and address issues about their living conditions considering the precarious elements of this type of work. The analysis of the data obtained has as theoretical references the studies on precariousness in the world of labor, black feminism, and lesbian materialist and francophone theorists. Thus, the relevance of this study is evident in the focus on the particularities of these workers, understanding their living conditions, from precarious informal employment, in which vulnerabilities and social unprotections that affect these women who do not express hegemonic femininity were verified, which also includes the desire to build a future with decent and safe employment.

Across the world, women constitute the bottom segments of the informal labour market hierarchy, and the story is no different for Turkish women, except they are further constrained by a patriarchal family culture and corporatist welfare state structure which favours high-skilled workers in full-time employment. A reading of the literature on the reasons for participating in the informal sector suggested that workers either end up in the informal sector as a result of structural factors, such as high unemployment, horizontal and vertical labour market discrimination and limited job opportunities for the low-skilled and low-educated, or they actively chose to participate in the labour market to seize the opportunities it provides, such as evading tax and/or bureaucratic costs, or testing out business ideas. However, this dichotomous understanding provided little scope, if any, to understand why women also entered the informal sector, in ever growing numbers and what the gender-specific constraints and opportunities in the informal sector are. Against this background, this thesis aims to show that this dichotomous theorisation of the informal sector is an exaggeration of reality, and that women workers position presents a middle ground, in which they recognise the constraints on their ability to improve their lives but they are also not powerless. Hence, by focusing on the variety of survival strategies used by women workers in the informal sector, the thesis attempts to show the choice among these strategies, including the conditions in which these strategies can be adopted and the barriers to do so.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-10T10:50:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 ANDREIA APARECIDA SILVA DE PADUA.pdf: 1426662 bytes, checksum: 98b0398a8222d10a9d24b9e395c52a76 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-04-08 / The present research has the purpose of analyzing the demographic growth of Goias, also approaching the growth of the State economy. It testifies that the Gross Domestic Product, in the last decades, has grown at rates higher than the national average. At the same time, it verifies that the population migration continues in an accelerated rhythm towards the territory of Goias. When the study makes a parallel between the economic growth and the demographic growth, the research concludes that the economic expansion has not been sufficient to expand the regional economically active population. While developing the research, methods of procedure called historical and comparative were used and the modality of research adopted was the bibliographic. / A presente pesquisa tem como objetivo analisar o crescimento demográfico de Goiás, abordando juntamente o crescimento da economia de Estado. Constata que o Produto Interno Bruto, nas últimas décadas, tem crescido a taxas superiores a média nacional. Ao mesmo tempo, verifica que a migração populacional continua acelerada para o território goiano. Ao fazer um paralelo entre crescimento econômico e crescimento demográfico, a pesquisa conclui que a expansão econômica não tem sido suficiente à expansão da população economicamente ativa regional. No desenvolvimento da pesquisa, foram utilizados os métodos de procedimento denominados histórico e comparativo e a modalidade da pesquisa adotada foi a bibliográfica.

Measuring and explaining poverty and its geographic differences in Indonesia is mostly confined to a single measure of poverty and to macro-level explanations. This thesis moves beyond these constraints to investigate regional poverty trends using multiple measures of poverty and to explore household and individual level explanations. The analyses in the thesis are undertaken using data from the SUSENAS core, covering the period 2000-2009. Different measures of poverty produce different numbers of poor. Some 33 million additional Indonesians were identified as poor using the $1.25 a day poverty measure than the official measure used by the government. The differences between both measures of poverty are, however, driven by poverty trends in the early 2000s, following the devastating impact of the 1997-1998 financial crisis. In the latter part of the 2000s, poverty trends were converging between the two poverty measures, suggesting some degree of reliability of Indonesia's official poverty measure. At the macro level, on average, increasing GDP is significantly associated with falling levels of poverty. The association is reduced marginally when the share of the informal workforce is taken into account, but in general the negative relationship remains robust. Regional analyses, however, reveal that GDP has a very small, insignificant negative association with poverty in the poorest region. At the individual level, education strongly determines poverty, independently of employment status. A substantial share of the primary and lower secondary qualified population is employed in informal work, yet their risk of poverty is substantially lower when compared to those with no formal qualification engaging as informal workers. More importantly, the highest risk of poverty exists among the unemployed who lack a formal education. This finding is highlighted because unemployment is often seen as having little relevance to poverty, since a higher proportion of the unemployed are tertiary educated. The 'penalty' on poverty for those occupying the lower tiers of educational qualification is heavier in less developed regions. Household level analysis show that the different groups of female-headed households (de facto, widows and divorcees) are less likely to be in poverty than male-headed couple households. After controlling for socioeconomic characteristics and the number of young children within households, however, female-headed divorcee households are found to be marginally poorer than male-headed couple households. Regional level analyses reveal that poverty is significantly higher in female divorcee-led households than in male-headed couple households in all regions, except in the most and least developed ones, where poverty is comparable between both groups.

Ce travail se concentre sur la place et le statut des femmes dans l’économie informelle. Qu’est ce qui donne à ces femmes l’élan et le courage de travailler dans des conditions précaires et défavorisées ? Quelles sont les caractéristiques distinctives des stratégies dont elles s’inspirent transcender leur position structurellement défavorisée au sein de l’économie ? Quelles sont les barrières auxquelles elles continuent de se heurter dans leurs efforts en vue de lutter contre les injustices de la société ? Afin de répondre à ces interrogations, nous avons réalisé en 2012 une enquête représentative auprès d’un échantillon de 1016 ménages dans la wilaya de Béjaia, parmi 783 femmes actives, un tiers des occupées exerce dans l’informel. L’analyse en coupe instantanée des données de l’enquête met en évidence l’hétérogénéité du secteur informel féminin (diversité des activités, raisons et niveau d’informalité variable, disparités salariales à l’égard des femmes). Celui-ci apparaît ni prépondérant, ni marginal. Nous distinguons deux groupes de femmes informelles, celles ayant des activités de subsistance et celles qui sont juste capables de satisfaire leurs besoins de base. L’analyse multidimensionnelle a permis de cerner différentes typologies de celles-ci (les travailleuses à domicile : couturières, les sous-traitantes de produits alimentaires, les nourrices, les coiffeuses…). L’éducation limitée, le manque de qualification, la richesse du ménage et les normes sociales jouent un rôle important dans l’intégration des femmes au marché du travail informel. Ces facteurs d’ordre économique et socioculturel accréditent l’idée de l’existence d’un secteur informel de survie pour les femmes et mettent en lumière leur rôle de reproduction sociale et non d’accumulation. / This work focuses on the position of women working in the informal economy. What gives these women the momentum and the courage to work in precarious and poor conditions? What are the distinctive features of the strategies that inspired them transcend their structurally disadvantaged position in the economy? What are the barriers they continue to face in their efforts to fight against society's injustices? To answer these questions, we conducted in 2012 a representative survey with a sample of 1016 households in the wilaya of Bejaia; among 783 women employed, one third exert informal activities. The cross-sectional analysis of the survey highlighted the heterogeneity of women in the informal sector. It appears that it is neither leading nor marginal. We distinguish two groups of informal women, those with subsistence activities and those who can barely meet their basic needs. Multivariate analysis identified different categories (homeworkers: dressmakers, sub-contracting food providers, nurses, hairdressers). Poor education, lack of qualifications, household wealth and the social norms play an important role in the integration of women in the informal labor market. These economic and socio cultural factors support the idea of the existence of an informal sector of survival for women and emphasize their role regarding social reproduction, not accumulation.

Busca demostrar como los altos costos de la legislación laboral operan de manera similar al control de precios, teniendo consecuencias bastante negativas para el mercado laboral y para los trabajadores. Algunos de los ejemplos que se presentan tienen como objetivo probar que, en ocasiones, una norma en favor de los trabajadores puede terminar afectando el mismo derecho que se intenta proteger. / Tesis

La informalidad laboral es una gran problemática del mercado laboral pero afecta a toda la economía. Entre sus causas y consecuencias implica muchos problemas económicos, sociales e institucionales. En el 2019 la informalidad laboral en el Perú fue del 72%, lo cual es alarmante. El presente trabajo de investigación se limita a analizar al empleado informal, es decir observar sus características y condiciones, para posteriormente evaluar de qué manera estos trabajadores podrían pasar a ser trabajadores formales. Dentro de los determinantes de la transición del empleo informal al empleo formal, el foco de atención está en el capital humano, el cual está representado por los años de educación. Para modelar este proceso se utilizó la base de microdatos de la ENAHO Panel 2015-2019, donde mediante estimaciones logit de elección binaria, teniendo de probabilidad éxito pasar a la formalidad y de fracaso que se mantenga en la informalidad, se exploraron las transiciones desde t a t+1 hasta t a t+4. Finalmente, se comprueba la hipótesis general, es decir el capital humano es un determinante que aumenta la probabilidad de que se migre al empleo formal, con un resultado robusto por la contundencia en todas las estimaciones. / Labor informality is a major problem in the labor market but it affects the entire economy. Among its causes and consequences, it involves many economic, social and institutional problems. In 2019, labor informality in Peru was 72%, which is alarming. The present research work is limited to analyzing the informal employee, that is, observing their characteristics and conditions, to later evaluate how these workers could become formal workers. Among the determinants of the transition from informal to formal employment, the focus is on human capital, which is represented by years of education. To model this process, the microdata base of the ENAHO Panel 2015-2019 was used, where by means of logit estimates of binary choice, having the probability of success going to formality and of failure remaining in informality, the transitions from ta t + 1 to ta t + 4. Finally, the general hypothesis is verified, that is, human capital is a determinant that increases the probability of migrating to formal employment, with a robust result due to the forcefulness in all estimates. / Trabajo de investigación

Cette étude a pour objectif d’étudier l’emploi et le chômage, son évolution en Algérie de 1966 à 2014 ainsi que ses aspects sociodémographiques. L’étude du marché du travail algérien a montré que celui-ci a subi de profondes transformations à cause des événements démographiques et économiques qui ont jalonné le pays, tels que : l’expansion de l’emploi informel et féminin, le recul de l’emploi public et l’effondrement du secteur agricole. L’analyse des données des enquêtes emplois de l’ONS, montre l’impact de ces éléments sur les taux d’activité. Ces derniers ont connu une grande hausse durant les périodes de crise etparticulièrement dans les années 1990. Cette hausse était due, à la fois, à la croissance démographique et à la poussée de l’activité féminine. Pour le taux de chômage, il a atteint son niveau le plus bas en 1984. Cette baisse est imputée à la faible pression démographique sur le marché du travail comme à la politique économique suivie dans les années 1970. A partir de 1986, le niveau de chômage augmente et atteint un pic durant les années 1990. Cette hausse a été déclenchée par un ensemble de facteurs : l’arrivée en masse sur le marché du travail d’individus issus des générations du baby-boom, la baisse durable des prix des hydrocarbures , la crise politique et sécuritaire et l’arrivée d’un nombre croissant de femmes sur le marché du travail. De 2000 à 2013, le niveau de chômage tend à la baisse. En effet, la forte hausse des prix des hydrocarbures en cette période, a permis la création d’un volume important d’emplois non permanents. S’ajoute, à cela, la baisse de la pression démographique dans la même période. A partir de 2014, le niveau de chômage repart vers la hausse alors qu’en même temps les cours du prix du pétrole chutent.Cette thèse a également visé le marché de l’emploi à l’échelle locale. Ainsi, l’enquête menée dans la wilaya d’Oran a concerné cinq communes. L’exploitation des données de cette enquête a révélé une forte participation des femmes dans la vie active ; près de la moitié d’entre elles ont suivi un enseignement supérieur. Cela a influé sur le taux d’activité global qui est plus élevé que la moyenne nationale. Quant aux taux d’emploi, ils sont faibles dans les communes réputées pour leur structure industrielle et plus important dans les communes les plus agglomérées. S’agissant de l’âge moyen d’entrée dans le premier emploi, l’enquête a relevé que le niveau d’instruction joue un rôle déterminant dans la diminution de l’écart entre les hommes et les femmes: l’âge d’entrée dans un premier emploi chez les universitaires femmes et hommes est presque identique alors que pour le niveau d’instruction égal ou inférieur au moyen, les femmes entrent plus tardivement sur le marché de l’emploi par rapport aux hommes. En ce qui concerne les demandeurs d’emplois, les données de l’enquête ont abouti à un taux de chômage plus élevé que la moyenne nationale. Le niveau de chômage est plus élevé dans les communes réputées être le bassin d’emploi de la wilaya d’Oran. / This study aims to analyze employment, unemployment and their evolution in Algeria from 1966 to 2014 and their socio-demographic point of view. The study of the Algerian workforce has shown that there has been a profound transformation due to demographic and economic events which stand out as milestones such as: the expansion of informal work, women in the workforce, decreasing public sector employment and the collapse of agriculture. The analysis of studies by the ONS show the impact of these elements on the rate of activity. The latter has shown a large increase during periods of crisis and particularlyduring the 1990's.This demand was the result of the increase of population and the development of women in the workforce. Unemployment reached its lowest level in 1984. This reduction is due to low population demand and the political and economic situation in the 1970's. From 1986, unemployment increased and reached its peak in the 1990's. This rise was due to a number of factors: the arrival of the baby-boomers and an increased number of women in the workplace, low petrol prices, and the political and security crisis. From 2000 to 2013 unemployment lessened. In fact, the high price of petrol in this period created a large number of precarious jobs and a drop in demand. From 2014, unemployment increased while the price of petrol fell.This work also studies the marketplace on a local level via 5 communes in wilaya d'Oran. The analysis of the information reveals a strong female participation, almost half of them have tertiary qualifications. That has influenced the total activity which is higher than the national average. Employment is low in the communes with an industrial structure and more important in built-up areas.The study shows that the level of education for first job seekers plays an important role between the employment of men and women: the age of tertiary educated men and women entering their first job is almost equal, where the level of education of men and women is equal or less than the average, women enter the workforce later than men. The study reveals that the level of job-seekers is higher than the national average. The level of unemployment is higher in the labour pool of the communes of wilaya d'Oran.