In simultaneously pursuing commercial and social goals, specialist microfinance organisations (MFOs) are leading examples of social enterprises working in development. Yet evidence of the feasibility of such ‘double bottom line’ management is limited. The thesis takes a comparative case study approach to investigating the dynamics of a social enterprise model of microfinance, with particular emphasis on its role in promoting employment related goals. Case study material consists primarily of the experience of two Central Asian MFOs that participated in an action research project ‘Microfinance for Decent Work’ implemented by the International Labour Organisation (ILO). Data was obtained through participant observation, staff interviews, client level surveys, and it also includes reflective practice arising from my participation in the ILO project as a consultant to both MFOs between 2008 and 2012. The findings are mixed. One of the MFOs was more strongly internally motivated to achieve social goals, and was more successful in implementing social performance management initiatives. The other was motivated more by the goal to demonstrate social performance to external stakeholders, and was less responsive to the evidence generated. The thesis also illustrates both path dependence in the evolution of social performance management, and the limited capacity of external agencies such as the ILO to influence the institutionalisation of development management within MFOs.

Bancos nacionais de desenvolvimento (BDs) são importantes braços financeiros e burocráticos do Poder Executivo na maior parte dos países, mas pouco se conhece sobre os elementos condicionantes de suas trajetórias e de seu papel. Esta tese analisa o desenvolvimento institucional dessas organizações a partir de bases sobre instituições financeiras de desenvolvimento (IFDs) no mundo e da comparação detalhada de três BDs: o KfW alemão, o brasileiro BNDES e a Nafin mexicana. A amostra global de países não revela convergência de trajetórias diferentemente, indica maior pluralidade de IFDs paralelamente ao desenvolvimento econômico e financeiro e ao aumento do controle da sociedade sobre o Executivo. Isso contraria proposições que apontam para a convergência a um sistema financeiro privado, com predomínio do mercado de capitais. A análise histórica mostra diferentes rotas dos BDs: (i) ampliação de área de atuação; (ii) redução e redefinição de atribuições e, no limite, (iii) extinção. As capacidades de autopreservação financeira e de adaptação às conjunturas e à agenda do Executivo são fatores de resiliência dessas instituições. O crescimento de atribuições, por sua vez, relaciona-se com o alargamento do campo politicamente negociado de atuação do BD no sistema financeiro. As trajetórias do KfW, expressão de um arranjo corporativista, e a do BNDES, de subordinação não mediada ao Executivo, caracterizam-se pelo estabelecimento de novas funções e competências ao longo do tempo. A configuração institucional do BNDES dá margem, contudo, a mudanças de diretrizes em razão da alternância de poder no Executivo e mesmo na sua direção característica desfavorável à pactuação e à continuidade de objetivos de longo prazo. O caso mexicano envolve a diminuição de escopo institucional no bojo de reformas liberais, com limitação ou extinção de capacidades de política pública. Palavras-chave: Bancos de desenvolvimento, Bancos públicos, Mudança institucional, Economia política comparada, KfW, BNDES, Nafin. / National development banks (NDBs) are important financial and bureaucratic arms of the Executive Power in most countries, yet little is known about their role and the elements that shape their trajectories. This thesis analyses the institutional development of these organizations based on development finance institutions (DFIs) around the world and on the comparison between three NDBs: the KfW in Germany, the Brazilian Development Bank (BNDES) and Mexicos Nafin. The global sample of countries does not reveal any convergence of trajectories. Instead, it indicates a greater number of DFIs running parallel to economic and financial development and the increase in control by society over the Executive. This counters propositions that place greater emphasis on trajectories that move in the direction of a private financial system with a greater role played by capital markets. The historical routes taken by the NDBs point to different trajectories: (i) expansion in the area of activity (ii) the reduction and re-definition of attributes and ultimately, (iii) extinction. The powers of financial self-preservation and adaptation to economic cycles and to the Executive agenda reflect the resilience of these institutions. The increase in attributes, in turn, is related to the expansion of the policatilly negotiated field of the NDB in the financial system. The trajectories of the KfW, reflecting a corporatist arrangement, and that of the BNDES, of unmediated subordination to the Executive, are characterized by the introduction of new functions and competences over time. The institutional configuration of the BNDES, however, leaves room for changes in guidelines based on alternating power within the Executive, and even in its management a feature which works against the consensus and continuity concerning long-term objectives. The Mexican example involves a decrease in the scope of liberal reforms, with the limitation or extinction of public policy capabilities.

Submitted by Silvana Teresinha Dornelles Studzinski (sstudzinski) on 2016-06-13T12:52:23Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Felipe de Mattos Zarpelon_.pdf: 4659879 bytes, checksum: 9b3e536fd2ab93d23f9f36ef17a4e28b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-13T12:52:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Felipe de Mattos Zarpelon_.pdf: 4659879 bytes, checksum: 9b3e536fd2ab93d23f9f36ef17a4e28b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-04-14 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Esta dissertação aborda o processo de formação e difusão de redes de cooperação no contexto das micro e pequenas empresas, por meio da implementação de políticas públicas. Partindo de uma revisão analítica da literatura sobre relações interorganizacionais, teoria institucional e trabalho institucional, buscou-se a compreensão sobre o papel de atores individuais em mudanças institucionais capazes de promover o desenvolvimento destas empresas. A partir das evidências teóricas, a questão problemática identificada foi compreender como uma política pública estimulou a formação e a difusão de redes de cooperação como um novo fenômeno organizacional entre micro e pequenas empresas. Para endereçar a resolução desta questão, é proposto, através das observações empíricas, um framework teórico-conceitual para auxiliar na compreensão deste processo de mudança institucional. A pesquisa empírica foi conduzia através de um estudo de caso sobre a trajetória de estímulo à cooperação entre micro e pequenas empresas no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul por meio da institucionalização da rede de cooperação como forma organizacional. Os resultados apontam para as seguintes evidências: a) o processo de mudança institucional se inicia com o reconhecimento de motivações internas e externas inerentes ao ator institucional; b) artefatos institucionais constituídos de ideias, materiais e identidades são importantes condutores na trajetória de mudança institucional; c) a conexão com atores locais facilita a contextualidade, legitimidade e poder necessários à efetiva implementação de ações propostas por um ator institucional centralizado; d) eventos de configuração de campo criam espaços em todos os níveis de atuação do trabalho institucional para a aceitação de novas práticas e limites institucionais; e) as práticas do trabalho institucional são dispostas em conjuntos complementares de trabalho político, reconfiguração dos sistemas de crenças, alteração de categorizações abstratas, divulgação e adaptação da nova instituição. Estas evidências indicam que as práticas do trabalho institucional devem estar calcadas em artefatos institucionais, conexão com atores locais e eventos de configuração de campo para a efetiva mudança institucional. / This dissertation presents the process of constitution and diffusion of cooperation networks in a context of micro and small firms through public policies. With a starting point in an analytical literature review of inter-organizational relations, institutional theory and institutional work, it sought to understand the role of individual actors in institutional changes capable of easing the development of these firms. The theoretical evidences induce to the research question of how a public policy stimulated the constitution and the diffusion of cooperation networks as a new organizational phenomenon among micro and small firms. To address the resolution of this question, it is proposed, through empirical observations, a theoretical-conceptual framework to support the understanding about this institutional change process. The empirical research conducted a case study about the trajectory of stimulation to cooperation among micro and small firms in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil, through the institutionalization of the cooperation network as a new organizational form. The results highlight the following evidence: a) the institutional change process starts with the recognition of intern and extern motivation inherent to the institutional actor; b) institutional artifacts composed of ideas, materials and identity are important conducers to the institutional change trajectory; c) the connection to local actors enhance contextuality, legitimacy and power necessary to the effective implementation of actions proposed by a centralized institutional actor; d) field-configuring events create spaces in every level of institutional work to support the acceptance of new institutional practices and limits; e) the practices of institutional work hold complementary sets of political work, reconfiguration of belief systems, alteration of abstract configurations, disclosure and adaptation of the new institution. These evidences indicate that practices of institutional work must be underpinned in institutional artifacts, connection to local actors and field-configuring events in order to promote thorough institutional changes.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo elaborar uma interpretação histórica sobre a expansão das funções do estado durante o período de 1930 a 1945, analisando as causas e desdobramentos da mudança institucional a partir do marco teórico da Economia Política Institucionalista. Esta perspectiva permite compreender mediante descrição da evolução histórica as especificidades do processo de mudança institucional devido as influências multidirecionais o influenciam resultantes das relações entre as novas instituições com ambiente institucional vigente e as circunstâncias materiais, além dos conflitos de ideias e interesses e o papel da agência humana. De forma geral, a interpretação empreendida demonstra que o estado, ao se expandir, alterou a visão de mundo dos agentes econômicos sobre sua própria intervenção e do desenvolvimento econômico. Além disso, as mudanças institucionais que sofre o estado contribuíram outras mais amplas através com estabelecimento de instituições voltadas a restringir o comportamento dos indivíduos e a possibilitar decisões, direcionando a modificação estrutural da economia brasileira e alterando os arranjos institucionais que sustentavam os mercados. Entretanto, os conflitos entre ideias e interesses também limitaram a ação do governo e a mudança institucional. O exame da evolução do Conselho Federal de Comércio Exterior corroborou a interpretação da ação do estado sobre a mudança institucional e a sua permeabilidade as contestações por parte de grupos de interesses. / The present work aims do a historical interpretation on the expansion of state functions during the period from 1930 to 1945, analyzing the causes and consequences of institutional change based on the theoretical framework of Institutional Political Economy. This perspective allows, through a description of historical evolution, to understand the specificities of the process of institutional change because the multidirectional influences that result from the relations between the new institutions with the current institutional environment and the material circumstances, also due the conflicts of ideas and interests and the role of human action. In general, the interpretation shows that the state expansion changed the worldview of economic agents about their own intervention and the economic development. In addition, the institutional change of the state triggered other broader ones through the establishment of institutions aimed restricting the behavior of individuals and enabling decisions, managing the structural modification of the Brazilian economy and changing the institutional arrangements that supported the markets. However, conflicts between ideas and interests also limited government action and institutional change. The examination of the evolution of the Foreign Trade Council corroborated the interpretation of the state's action on institutional change and its permeability to the disputes of interest groups.

O presente estudo tem por objetivo analisar a política pública sobre drogas brasileira. Verificase que a política de drogas do Brasil respondeu positivamente ao proibicionismo que caracteriza o regime internacional de controle do trânsito de drogas, que na América Latina viu-se produzido sob forte pressão estadunidense. O trabalho descreve um histórico de produção da política brasileira sobre drogas dividida por duas dimensões: uma delas do campo da saúde, e a outra da justiça e segurança. A seguir, entendendo que a política sobre drogas no Brasil encontra-se em processo de mudança, iniciado há duas décadas e com origem, principalmente, em iniciativas do campo da saúde serão aplicados os modelos de múltiplos fluxos de Kingdon e o de mudança institucional gradual de Mahoney e Thelen a fim de esboçar algumas interpretações sobre a dinâmica desta mudança. / The present study aims to analyze Brazilian public policy on drugs. It is verified that the drug policy of Brazil responded positively to the prohibitionism that characterizes the international regime of control of the traffic of drugs, that in Latin America has been produced under strong American pressure. The paper describes a history of the production of Brazilian drug policy divided into two dimensions: one from the health field and the other from justice and security. Following, understanding that drug policy in Brazil is in a process of changing, initiated two decades ago and mainly originated in initiatives from the field of health will be applied the models of multiple streams of Kingdon and the theory of gradual institutional change from Mahoney and Thelen in order to sketch some interpretations about the dynamics of this change.

A quebra das barreiras comerciais, o desenvolvimento do mercado de capitais e o aumento constante de capital externo no país impuseram às empresas elaborarem seus demonstrativos à luz de uma linguagem única, capaz de facilitar a comunicação entre os mercados mundiais e, nesse contexto, a convergência contábil, foi a resposta a essa necessidade. No Brasil esse processo iniciou-se, efetivamente, pela promulgação da Lei nº 11.638/2007. A promessa de desvinculação entre as normas contábeis e fiscais, dada pelo artigo 177, § 2º, da referida Lei, demonstra a preocupação em relação à interferência da legislação fiscal sobre as normas e práticas contábeis. Essa preocupação não é apenas uma prerrogativa do Brasil, mas segundo estudos internacionais, a relação entre essas normas é uma característica importante das diferenças contábeis no cenário internacional. Este trabalho busca, além de analise do processo de convergência contábil sob o enfoque da Teoria Institucional, avaliar o grau de conexão entre as normas e práticas contábeis e fiscais através do modelo proposto por Lamb et al. (1998), modificado por Nobes e Schwencke (2006). Inicialmente o estudo analisa o processo de institucionalização das normas internacionais no Brasil, posteriormente avalia a mudança no grau de conexão entre as normas contábeis e fiscais em dois períodos: antes e depois da promulgação da Lei nº 11.638/2007. Pode-se afirmar que a mesma foi reduzida e que, apesar de ainda manter conexões, o esforço para a desvinculação está surtindo efeito. Posteriormente, o modelo foi aplicado nos demonstrativos contábeis da empresa Gerdau S. A.. Essa aplicação possibilitou identificar se as normas a existência de uma situação até então não identificada, a adoção de normas fiscais em detrimento a uma norma específica contábil. Identificamos também que, exceto a situação relatada anteriormente, as normas fiscais afetam no mesmo grau tanto as normas quanto as práticas contábeis. / The fall of trade barriers, the development of capital market and the steady increase of foreign capital in the country imposed businesses develop their statements in a universal language that facilitates communication between global markets and in this context, accounting convergence was a result to this necessity. In Brazil this process began, indeed, by the promulgation of Law 11.638/07. The promise of separation between the accounting and tax rules, amended in 177 Article, Paragraph 2 of that Act, demonstrates the concern about the interference of tax legislations on the rules and accounting practices. This concern is not only a prerogative of Brazil, but according to international studies, the relationship between these standards is an important characteristic of accounting differences on the international scene. This paper identifies which is the level of connection between the accounting rules and practices and tax rules through a model proposed by Lamb et al. (1998), and modified by Nobes and Schwencke (2006). Initially, the study identifies the changes in the degree of connection between the accounting and tax rules in two periods: before and after the promulgation of Law 11.638/07. We can say that the same was reduced and although still maintaining connections, the effort to untie is getting some effects. Subsequently, the model was applied to the financial statements of the Company Gerdau S. A. This test identified the existence of a situations not previously identified, the adoption of tax rules over a specific accounting standard. We also identified that, except the situation reported before, the tax rules affect both in the same degree as the accounting standard.

Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht kooperative und hierarchische Erscheinungsformen des institutionellen Wandels am Beispiel des Anbaus von gentechnisch verändertem Bt-Mais MON810 in Deutschland. In den Jahren 2005 bis 2008 war der kommerzielle Anbau dieser Pflanze in Deutschland möglich, und überwiegend Landwirte in den ostdeutschen Bundesländern machten von dieser Möglichkeit der Bekämpfung des Maisschädlings Ostrinia nubilalis Hübn. (Maiszünsler) Gebrauch. Unter Zuhilfenahme des Analyserahmens „Institutionen der Nachhaltigkeit“ werden in vier empirischen Kapiteln die Aspekte 1) Risikowahrnehmung und institutionelle Präferenz, 2) Möglichkeiten der Bereitstellung des Gutes „Gentechnikfreie Atmosphäre, 3) regionale Faktoren für Adaptionsunterschiede und 4) Adaption von Bt-Mais als Verhandlungsspiel zwischen Akteuren des ländlichen Raums beleuchtet. Hierbei wird deutlich, dass eine verstärkte Risikowahrnehmung beim Anbau von Bt-Mais MON810 eine Präferenz für eine Verschärfung des gegenwärtigen gesetzlichen Rahmens zum Umgang mit gentechnisch veränderten Pflanzen bedingt. Ebenso bevorzugen Akteure mit einer entsprechenden Risikowahrnehmung eine hierarchische Steuerung zur Sicherstellung der Gentechnikfreiheit, beispielsweise in Form von staatlich ausgewiesenen Gentechnikfreien Regionen oder Anbauverboten. Bei der Adaption von Bt-Mais kommt der Maisfläche je Betrieb eine große Bedeutung zu. Durch den rechtlichen Rahmen in Deutschland, die jeweilige Agrarstruktur und das soziale Umfeld wird der Anbau von Bt-Mais erschwert. Die unterschiedlichen Akteure wenden daher Maßnahmen an, um ihre eigene Verhandlungsposition zu verbessern oder die des Mitspielers zu verschlechtern. Hierzu zählen beispielsweise die Reduktion von Mindestabständen durch nachbarschaftliche Absprachen oder auch die Ausübung von öffentlichem Druck auf Bt-Mais anbauende Landwirte sowie Feldzerstörungen. / This work aims at analysing co-operative and hierarchical forms of institutional change in the case of Bt-maize cultivation in Germany. Genetically modified Bt-maize expresses a toxin which is lethal for the larvae of a main pest in maize production, the European Corn Borer. From 2005 to 2008, the cultivation of this transgenic crop was legally possible in Germany and adoption took mainly place in the former eastern German federal states. In four empirical chapters, the aspects of 1) risk perception and institutional preferences, 2) hierarchical or co-operative provision of the good “GMO-free atmosphere”, 3) regional adoption patterns of Bt-maize and 4) the adoption as a bargaining game will be analysed. It becomes apparent that actors with a strong risk perception prefer stricter institutions when dealing with the cultivation of GM crops and also favour hierarchical governance forms instead of co-operative solutions. The adoption of Bt-maize at the federal state level in Germany is significantly influenced by the factor maize area per farm. When conceptualizing Bt-maize adoption as a game under a strict regulatory framework and different agricultural and social structures, several measures can be identified which are employed by the actors to improve one’s own bargaining position, such as private agreements on the reduction of isolation distances or impair the one of the opposite player through public pressure or field destructions.

本研究之目的在探討台灣生技產業科技政策推動過程中所引發之爭議：臨床試驗(clinical trials)產業化，並以台灣地區自1960年代末期至2010年臨床試驗發展的制度變遷為研究標的，尤其是其中之生技產業政策推動及臨床試驗制度變遷，以說明該爭議如何發生及為何發生。 為發展台灣生物技術產業，行政院於2005年起推動生醫科技島(biomedical technology island)計畫，將原先為生物技術產業發展基礎設施的臨床試驗作為政策推動的主體，引發臨床試驗產業化的爭議。一般認為，此爭議是來自於促進產業發展與維護國民健康之間的利益衝突。 本研究經由制度變遷(institutional change)的觀點，探索台灣地區臨床試驗發展的歷程，認為上述臨床試驗產業化的爭議不只是產業推動與國民健康間的衝突，而是與台灣地區自1960年代末期至2010年生技產業政策推動與臨床試驗制度變遷有關。 台灣地區推動生物技術的科技政策始於1982年行政院修訂「科學技術發展方案(science technology development program」，明訂生物技術為八大重點科技之一，而後有1995年的行政院「加強生物技術產業推動方案(biotechnology industry promotion program」，2005年的行政院「生醫科技島計畫」等科技政策，本研究發現不同時期的科技政策賦予臨床試驗不同的意義，而不同時期臨床試驗的發展，其不同時期的行動者【產、官、學、研、醫】-- 包含政策決策者與政策參與者 -- 在臨床試驗制度變遷的過程中產生行動的差異；而在不同時期臨床試驗的發展階段，不同的官方行動者 -- 治理機構（governance agency）【衛生署、國科會、經濟部、科技顧問組等】，對於臨床試驗議題有不同程度的涉入。 台灣地區臨床試驗的發展在生技產業政策的型塑下，由原先之學術研究，階段性轉向協助產業發展。2005年行政院生醫科技島計畫，將臨床試驗作為政策推動的主體，擴大醫界參與生物技術產業發展，而醫界主要以醫療服務為主的制度邏輯（institutional logics）與科技政策形塑下產業發展的制度邏輯不一致（contradictions），因而引發臨床試驗產業化的爭議。 本研究發現對於科技政策的意涵為：在制訂與推動科技政策的過程中，唯有同時瞭解產業發展的歷史脈絡，才能避免產生非預期的結果（例如爭議）。本研究除探討生技產業政策推動過程中臨床試驗的制度變遷與變遷過程中所衍生的爭議，並將探討未來可能的研究方向。 / The study is intended to explore a controversy derived from the Taiwan biotechnology industry promotion by government policies, industrialization of clinical trials. The study targets the institutional change of the clinical trials and the policies for biotechnology industry promotion in Taiwan from the late 1960’s through 2010 to explain why and how the controversy was incurred. In order to develop the Taiwan biotechnology industry, the Executive Yuan implemented a Biomedical Technology Island program beginning 2005 to focus on clinical trials -- supposedly the infrastructure of biotechnology technology development -- but resulted in the controversy about the initiative of industrialization of clinical trials. It is reputedly because there is a conflict of interest between industry development promotion and how to maintain national healthcare. From the perspective of institutional change, the study explores the evolution of clinical trials in Taiwan, holding that the aforementioned controversy is not only a conflict of interest between industry development promotion and how to maintain national healthcare but also a consequence of the institutional change of the clinical trials and biotechnology promotion by government policies from the late 1960’s through 2010. The biotechnology industry promotion in Taiwan began with the Executive Yuan’s revision of its Science Technology Development program in 1982, designating the biotechnology as one of the eight strategic industries. The Executive Yuan followed through with a Biotechnology Industry Promotion program in 1995 and the Biomedical Technology Island program in 2005. The study finds that science and technology policies in different periods of time endowed clinical trials with different meanings while discrepant actions on clinical trials were taken by both policy makers and policy executors including the industry, government organizations, academia, research institutes and the medical community in different periods of time. The study also finds that different governance agencies, such as the Department of Health, Ministry of Economic Affairs, National Science Council as well as Science and Technology Advisory Group of the Executive Yuan, had different levels of involvement with the development of clinical trials in different periods of time. Molded by the government’s biotechnology policies, clinical trials in Taiwan have evolved from the nature of academic research to assistance to industry development. The Biomedical Technology Island program beginning 2005 focuses on clinical trials and strengthens the medical community’s participation in biotechnology development, but the institutional logics of the medical community is primarily about medical service and its contradictions with the institutional logics of biotechnology industry development have resulted in the controversy about industrialization of clinical trials. A science and technology policy implication identified by the study is that unexpected outcomes, such as the controversy dealt with herein, can only be avoided by understanding the historical context of an industry when the government develops and promotes the relevant policies for the industry. Moreover, the study will explore possible research directions in the future.

<p>One of the problems challenging the knowledge society is to understand the chang-ing prerequisites for publicly governed knowledge production. Several attempts have been made amongst which perhaps the most debated is the concept of changing mo-des of knowledge production proposed by Gibbons et al. The aim of this thesis is to empirically explore whether this concept can be used to identify and explain research policy developments during the period 1980–2000. A two-layered comparative study was undertaken, in which Swedish research poli-cy developments were studied in depth. The main result from the in-depth study was that there is insufficient evidence to fully support Gibbons et al.’s claims. In analysing this result from a comparative perspective the main conclusion was that neither the changing modes of knowledge production nor the two-track concept that was deri-ved from the in-depth study could explain the developments in research policy. The research policy developments in Sweden, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Finland were re-examined from an institutional perspective, in which the major ide-as that had influenced the policy process during the period 1980–2000 were used to identify and explain developments in these countries. The main conclusion of this thesis is that all the countries studied are using the public research system as a source of strategic opportunity. However, the analysis also shows that both embedded ideas of how public knowledge should be produced, and the nature of the policy process contribute to explaining the different strategies employed the governments of these countries to make publicly funded research a tool for economic and societal development.</p>

The soft budget constraint - today a popular metaphor - is a paradox. In socialist economies, it implies that the state tends to bail out state-owned firms in financial trouble, in spite of the tremendous performance problems of the entire system that result. When the system broke down, the soft budget constraint was expected to disappear. However, it seems to persist, and its persistence appears to hamper the transition process itself. This study seeks an answer to this paradox. It aims at increasing our understanding of why the soft budget constraint exists. By investigating state-owned enterprises in Tanzania before, during and after socialism, the prevalence of the soft budget constraint is examined and an explanation of its existence is suggested. The approach is institutional. The soft budget constraint is defined as an informal institution and an invisible-hand explanation of its emergence, persistence and logic is applied. The study shows that the soft budget constraint emerged as an unintended consequence of the establishment of the Tanzanian socialist system in the 1970s. A behavioural solution to recurrent systemic problems was offered, and thus the soft budget constraint performed several functions. Once established, its very existence set off a cumulative process of self-generation. Four reinforcement mechanisms that accounted for its prevalence during Tanzanian socialism are identified. Its character as a behavioural rule helps to explain why it persisted during market-oriented reform, initiated in the mid-1980s. The soft budget constraint was part of the socialist heritage, was adapted to systemic change, and influenced the direction and character of this change. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögsk.