中游廠商面臨產業結構屬於獨寡占的上游廠商，兩者之間由於中游的經濟規模小於上游形成不對稱組織交易，再者中游廠商與上游存在依賴關係，前者需要後者提供原物料或技術服務以滿足下游顧客需求。本研究利用策略行銷成本架構(4C analysis)，並針對國內各大產業之中介廠商為研究對象，包含電機機械通路產業、半導體設計製造業以及旅遊資訊服務業等產業進行深度訪談。此獨寡占上游─中游─下游情境中，分別解釋產業鏈中的從屬關係。 首先是權力處於相對弱勢的中游廠商與上游的交易關係：中游廠商看似被上游供應商套牢陷入的狀況，但除了存在專屬陷入成本外，影響該交易關係尚存在外顯單位效益成本以及道德危機成本。接著，中游廠商為了與上游持續交易的目的下，採取的策略成本選擇為降低外顯單位效益成本，以及提高上游廠商對於中游的專屬陷入成本以達到與上游持續交易的目的，另一方面，順應此不利環境下，中游廠商滿足下游需求的做法有降低外顯單位效益成本、資訊搜尋成本、道德危機成本以及提高專屬陷入成本的方式。最後一部分為中游為減少對上游廠商的依賴，對於上游或下游投資抵銷性資產，使中游廠商提高本身的議價能力，對於上游廠商的依賴程度獲得減緩。 / In comparison to monopoly or oligopoly up-stream suppliers, mid-stream firms has smaller scale in terms of revenue, the transaction between the two can be described as asymmetric interorganizational relationship. Besides, the mid-stream firms depend on its supplier for key material or services, in order to fulfill the demand of their down-stream customers. This study focus on the monopoly/oligopoly upstream supplier to mid-stream firms to down-stream customer chain, interviewing mid-stream firms in different industries including dealer in electrical machinery industry, semi-conductor industry and tour agent and delve into the relationships between these characters by 4C analysis structure. First of all, the study took a closer look at the relationship between the mid-stream firms and their suppliers; the formers have an inferior bargaining power position and seemed being locked up by the latters, as known as cost of asset-specificity. But we also found that over cost per utility and cost of moral hazard would also be considered by the mid-stream firms. The mid-streams took some actions in order to assure the continuous cooperation with the suppliers, and under this circumspect they will also make efforts to save down-stream customers. We found that the 4C analysis can explain the strategies taken by those mid-stream firms. Finally, the mid-streams would like to reduce the control of the up-streams, so they would put resources in establishing offsetting investments to accumulate their bargaining power to the suppliers, to mitigate the dependence.

代工廠商承接訂單時，為特定品牌客戶投資各種專屬的設備和人力是普遍存在的現象。相較之下，台灣的代工廠商處於相對弱勢的地位。代工廠商並不容易在交易初期就從品牌客戶端，取得對等的保護機制，故契約的執行的風險也相對升高。但實務上，我們發現台灣的代工廠商在沒有事前保護機制的情況下，卻仍持續為特定客戶投資。如果代工廠商必須先承諾關係專屬投資，才能爭取得到訂單。在沒有事前保護機制的情況下，代工廠商該有那些配套措施，來保護交易關係？ 本研究以代工廠商角度，探討如何透過交易後的保護策略，改變代工廠商與客戶之間的依賴關係。本研究根據交易成本理論和權力依賴理論推論，代工廠商傾向先承諾關係專屬投資，並於交易後採取事後保護策略。事後保護策略有兩類，分別是槓桿策略（資源獲取、擴大客戶範疇）和連結策略（擴大垂直範疇、共同決策與行動）。槓桿策略企圖降低代工廠商的依賴程度；連結策略則會提高客戶的依賴程度。藉由代工廠商與品牌客戶之間的權力變化，進而保護關係專屬投資免於套牢的威脅。 本研究分三個子研究進行，分別為（1）探索性個案研究、（2）關係專屬投資量表發展、（3）問卷調查研究。第一、探索性個案研究發現，不對稱的組織間關係使得代工廠商必須配合品牌客戶的需求而承諾關係專屬投資，但在「小對大」的格局之下，較為弱勢的代工廠商仍有具有生存空間。個案研究發現代工廠商對品牌客戶的投資，除了單一交易的成本與利益之外，還會考量對未來交易以及其他交易對象的影響。所謂「將欲奪之，必固與之」，代工廠商透過關係專屬投資被整合到產業的價值網絡中，換取廠商的生存機會。 第二、關係專屬投資量表發展研究發現，關係專屬投資為一多構面構念，可分為「實體資產投資」、「無形資產投資」和「資產專屬程度」三個次構念。由此可知，關係專屬投資既是一種資產，有助於交易關係之維持；也可能成為負債，限於少數交易的困境。 第三、本研究整合交易成本理論和權力依賴理論，並根據個案研究和量表發展結果，推論關係專屬投資程度、事後保護策略、依賴程度三者之間的關係。問卷調查研究證實，代工廠商對品牌客戶的無形 資產投資會增加代工廠商的依賴程度。但如果代工廠商投資之後，採取資源獲取策略。藉由品牌客戶的背書，提升知名度或市場地位，則關係專屬投資與代工廠商依賴程度之間的關係就會減弱。另外，關係專屬投資也會提高客戶對代工廠商的依賴程度。投資實體資產和無形資產的代工廠商，會藉由擴大服務範疇，與客戶共同決策與行動，來提高客戶依賴程度。 / In original equipment manufacturer (OEM)-supplier relationships, OEM suppliers commonly make investments that are specialized to the requirements of a particular buyer. Taiwanese OEM suppliers are small-medium firms with limited resources and low in market visibility. They are initially in a weak bargaining position, so they have no ability to vertical integrate or demand any kind of ex ante safeguards at all. Knowing that clients may have opportunistic behaviors, suppliers in Taiwan still make relation-specific investments for them without their commitments. How do these suppliers governance the asymmetric interorganizational relationships to avoid falling into the trap predicted by the transaction cost theory? This study takes the view of a supplier, the small party in asymmetric OEM-supplier relationship, who adopts ex post strategies to create inter-organizational dependency with OEMs. According to transaction cost theory and power dependency theory, we argue that OEM suppliers are more likely to make relation-specific investments first and follow by ex post strategies. We model the ex post strategies adopted by OEM suppliers to protect specific investments in asymmetric OEM-supplier relationships by using leveraging strategy (resource acquisition, customer scope) and bonding strategy (vertical scope, joint action). Leveraging strategies will lower the level of suppliers’ dependence on OEMs while bonding strategy will increase the level of OEMs’ dependence on suppliers. We conducted three studies to explore the issues: (1) exploratory case research; (2) scale development of the construct of relation-specific investment; (3) survey research. First, we found that investment decision of small party is beyond the scope of a single transaction. After making relation-specific investments, OEM suppliers redeploy their resources and work closely with their buyers to maintain exiting and future transactions. They also acquire strategic resources from OEMs and apply them to a broader customer base. Second, the concept of relation-specific investment is a multidimensional construct with three sub-dimensions as tangible investment, intangible investment, and asset specificity. Relation-specific investments create an inherent dilemma because they have the potential both to promote and reduce transaction cost for investing parties. Third, we integrated two theories to explore the relationships between relation-specific investment, ex post strategies, and dependency. According to survey results of 146 OEM suppliers in Taiwan, we confirmed the positive relationship between suppliers’ intangible asset investment and their dependency on OEMs. However, if suppliers leverage their clients’ reputations and reposition themselves as first-tier suppliers, they can lower the level of suppliers’ dependency due to their relation-specific investments. On the other hand, the more relation-specific investments suppliers make, the morel likely suppliers would adopt bonding strategy by expanding vertical scope in supply chain and by actively involving in joint decision making. We found that relation-specific investment itself and suppliers’ bonding strategy will increase the OEMs’ dependency on suppliers.

Plusieurs facteurs importants interviennent dans la dynamique concurrentielle des chaînes logistiques, à savoir les caractéristiques structurales et relationnelles. Nous optons dans ce travail doctoral pour l'étude des registres relationnels afin de comprendre le rôle des réseaux sociaux dans la construction d'une capacité de coordination au sein des chaines logistiques. Le champ d'investigation est celui du prestataire logistique de dernière génération dénommé 4PL, dont le métier consiste à concevoir et à orchestrer des systèmes logistiques sans pour autant posséder d'actifs matériels. Afin de faire la lumière sur cette problématique, nous mobilisons trois cadres d'analyse, à savoir le management inter-organisationnel, l'approche par les réseaux sociaux et la prestation logistique. La démarche empirique s'est appuyée sur l'analyse du discours de personnes évoluant dans des entreprises ayant mis en oeuvre une prestation 4PL. Les résultats de notre recherche doctorale soulignent qu'il faut tenir compte de valeurs aussi bien économiques que sociales, comme la confiance et les liens interpersonnels, pour dynamiser les relations inter-organisationnelles. Ces valeurs sociales facilitent le travail de coordination du 4PL au sein des chaînes logistiques et légitiment son pilotage. / Several important factors are involved in the competitive dynamics of supply chains: namely the structural and relational characteristics. In this doctoral research we choose to use the relational register in order to understand the role of social networks in building coordination capacity within supply chains. The field of investigation is the Fourth Party Logistics (4PL), whose job is to design and orchestrate logistics systems without ownership of physical assets. To shed some light on this issue we engage three analytical frameworks: the inter-organizational management, the social networks paradigm and logistics services. The empirical approach was based on discourse analysis of people operating in 4PL companies. The results of our study highlight that we must rely on economical as well as social values, such as trust and interpersonal ties, in order to maintain and boost inter-organizational relationships. These social values facilitate 4PL's coordination within supply chains and legitimize its control.

Bakgrund: Interorganisatoriska relationer har blivit allt viktigare de senaste åren, företag köper exempelvis in IT-tjänster för att kunna förbättra sin kärnverksamhet. Det är dock vanligt att interorganisatoriska relationer misslyckas, en lösning till problem med dessa relationer är att använda ekonomisk styrning. En typ av relation som är speciellt utsatt för problematiken är relationen mellan små och medelstora företag, vilket är en grupp det saknas forskning och empiriska undersökningar om, trots dess stora inverkan på den svenska ekonomin. Ännu mer problematiskt blir det när dessa företag köper eller säljer tjänster, då hantering av tjänster kräver en större administrativ kunskap som mindre företag generellt inte besitter. Därmed är det av intresse att studera hur relationen mellan små och medelstora företag som hanterar tjänster ska styras på bästa sätt. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att skapa en modell över hur styrningen av interorganisatoriska relationer utformas och används av små och medelstora företag. Genomförande: Studien är en kvalitativ fallstudie med ett abduktivt angreppsätt. Empirisk data har samlats in genom semistrukturerade intervjuer på fem olika små och medelstora företag som köper och säljer tjänster, med syfte att framhäva perspektivet från båda partner i relationen.  Resultat: Studiens resultat visar att det krävs en kombination av formella och informella styrmedel för att ha en fungerande interorganisatorisk relation. Avvägningen av olika styrverktyg beror på olika bakomliggande faktorer som präglar relationen mellan små och medelstora företag men resultatet tydliggör även att tillit och kommunikation har en stor inverkan på behovet av olika slags styrning. Samtidigt har kontraktet en väsentlig del av de studerade interorganisatoriska relationerna. Det är i kontraktet som bland annat finansiella och ickefinansiella målsättningar kan specificeras och kontraktet används som ett underlag för utförandet av tjänsten, uppföljning och avstämning, vilket inte alltid utförs i praktiken. Tilliten som finns mellan parterna i en relation påverkar hur kontraktet sedan används. Studien visar att formella styrmedel och tillit i vissa delar av relationen kan användas som substitut till varandra. / Background: The importance of interorganizational relationships has increased in recent years. Companies outsource peripheral components of their operations, such as IT, in order to focus on the main purpose of the company. It is common, however, for these relationships to fail and one solution to the problems arising from interorganizational relationships is the use of management control systems. Relationships between small and medium sized enterprises, in particular, present significant issues. Although they have a great impact on the Swedish economy, there are few scientific studies on them. These companies have an even harder time coping with interorganizational relationships when they are dealing with services, as they require more administrative knowledge than they don’t possess. It is therefore of elevated interest to study the relationship between small and medium sized enterprises that handles services and what type of management control system is best suited for the relationship.  Purpose: The purpose of this study is to create a model of the management control systems of interorganizational relationships between small and medium sized enterprises.  Design: The study is a qualitative case study with an abductive approach. Empirical data has been collected through semi-structured interviews at five different small and medium sized enterprises that sell and buy services in order to elucidate both parties’ perspectives.  Conclusion: The results from the study demonstrate that it is necessary to have a combination of formal and informal management control systems in order to maintain a functioning interorganizational relationship. The balance between different control systems depends on underlying factors arising from the relationship between small and medium sized enterprises. The study also shows that trust and communication has a great impact on the need for different types of control, however, the contract has simultaneously proven to be an essential part of the interorganizational relationships that have been studied. The contract can specify the financial and non-financial aims of the parties and can also be used as a model for how the service should be provided. The contract can also be used for future reviews of the working relationship, although this is not always the case, as the level of trust between the two parties will influence how the contract is actually used. The study shows that formal control systems and trust can be used as substitutes to one another throughout the relationship.

Purpose: The purpose of the study is to identify the challenges that small garments manufacturers in Pakistan face in an IOR with large retailers regarding power dominance. The paper also seeks to examine how those garment manufacturers can use the Boundary Control Systems as a strategic response to power dominance. Methodology: The study is Qualitative, Exploratory in nature. It adapts critical realism as its research philosophy while developing the study with an Abductive Approach. The data for this paper was collected through related literature, articles, and a series of semi-structured interviews. The collected Empirical Data was analyzed using Creswell's Six Steps method. Findings: The paper explores the challenges faced by the small garments manufacturers in an IOR with large retailers in the Garments Industry of Pakistan, which include the struggle to have fair pricing, dominant behavior of the retailer, over-controlling inspections of the production, unavailability of resources to manage the production scale, overly strict sanctions or price cut by the retailers, and misunderstandings created by cultural and lingual diversity. These challenges almost always start from the Negotiation stage of the collaboration leaving the small garments manufacturer little to no room for mitigating them. The most effective strategy that the small garments manufacturers can adopt while dealing with power dominance. It is to apply Boundary Systems as early as the Negotiation Stage to prevent the retailer from imposing opportunistic behavior. Involving Boundary Spanners can be useful to have better control over the challenges. Originality and Contribution: The paper attempts to explore the fairly under-studied area of power dominance between small garments manufacturers and large retailers working in the developing garments manufacturing-supplying industry in Pakistan and how Boundary Systems can be used in this dynamic. A significant lack of awareness and studies were identified while researching for this study. Hence this paper can be considered a new and fresh way to look at the issue that has been previously undermined. And a contribution to the literature and future researchers to further the studies in this area.