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O presente trabalho tem por objetivo fazer um panorama da Representação da figura feminina em quatro obras literárias, que abrangem desde o período Moderno até a atualidade do Japão: As irmãs Makioka, de Junichirô Tanizaki, Minha querida Sputnik, de Haruki Murakami, Kitchen, de Banana Yoshimoto e A mulher na outra margem, de Mitsuyo Kakuta. A construção das personagens e o contexto no qual estão inseridas são escopo para refletirmos sobre as imposições governamentais a que foram expostas e como essas determinações influenciaram a maneira como as mulheres japonesas eram vistas socialmente. Assim sendo, analisaremos de que forma elas reagiram ao determinismo de suas funções como indivíduos da Nação Japonesa e como esses autores trabalharam as problemáticas vividas pelas mulheres, bem como a visão crítica para que essas japonesas fossem mais independentes e autoconscientes para construir sua própria identidade. Para entendermos os processos, tanto da construção identitária como o ¨ideal de feminilidade¨ no Japão, nos basearemos em teorias ocidentais como as reflexões sobre identidade de Stuart Hall e Hommi K. Bhabha, o questionamento quanto às instituições de poder de Michael Foucault, entre outros. Ao utilizarmos diferentes proposições, pretendemos desmitificar a representação estereotipada da mulher japonesa e desconstruí-la para apresentar o processo de ressignificação de sua imagem no Japão. / The present work aims to make an overview of the Women\'s Figure Representation in four literary works, that range from the Modern Period up to contemporary Japan: Makioka Sisters by Junichirô Tanizaki, Sputnik Sweetheart by Haruki Murakami, Kitchen by Banana Yoshimoto and The Woman on the other shore by Mitsuyo Kakuta. Construction of characters and the context they are inserted are the scope of the reflection about the Government impositions that women were exposed to and bow those determinations influenced the way japanese women were socially seen. Therefore, we will analyse how they reacted against the determinism of their duties as individuals of Japanese Nation and how these authors worked the problematic experienced by women, as well their critical understanding how women should be more independent and self-conscious in order to think about their own identity. To understand the processes, both the identity construction and the ideal of femininity in Japan, we will base the study on the western theories such as Bhabha K. Hommi and Stuart Hall´s reflections on Identity and, Michael Foucault´s question on power institutions, and others. By using different propositions, we intend to demystify the stereotypical representation of Japanese woman and desconstruct it to display the process of reframing their image in Japan.

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo fazer um panorama da Representação da figura feminina em quatro obras literárias, que abrangem desde o período Moderno até a atualidade do Japão: As irmãs Makioka, de Junichirô Tanizaki, Minha querida Sputnik, de Haruki Murakami, Kitchen, de Banana Yoshimoto e A mulher na outra margem, de Mitsuyo Kakuta. A construção das personagens e o contexto no qual estão inseridas são escopo para refletirmos sobre as imposições governamentais a que foram expostas e como essas determinações influenciaram a maneira como as mulheres japonesas eram vistas socialmente. Assim sendo, analisaremos de que forma elas reagiram ao determinismo de suas funções como indivíduos da Nação Japonesa e como esses autores trabalharam as problemáticas vividas pelas mulheres, bem como a visão crítica para que essas japonesas fossem mais independentes e autoconscientes para construir sua própria identidade. Para entendermos os processos, tanto da construção identitária como o ¨ideal de feminilidade¨ no Japão, nos basearemos em teorias ocidentais como as reflexões sobre identidade de Stuart Hall e Hommi K. Bhabha, o questionamento quanto às instituições de poder de Michael Foucault, entre outros. Ao utilizarmos diferentes proposições, pretendemos desmitificar a representação estereotipada da mulher japonesa e desconstruí-la para apresentar o processo de ressignificação de sua imagem no Japão. / The present work aims to make an overview of the Women\'s Figure Representation in four literary works, that range from the Modern Period up to contemporary Japan: Makioka Sisters by Junichirô Tanizaki, Sputnik Sweetheart by Haruki Murakami, Kitchen by Banana Yoshimoto and The Woman on the other shore by Mitsuyo Kakuta. Construction of characters and the context they are inserted are the scope of the reflection about the Government impositions that women were exposed to and bow those determinations influenced the way japanese women were socially seen. Therefore, we will analyse how they reacted against the determinism of their duties as individuals of Japanese Nation and how these authors worked the problematic experienced by women, as well their critical understanding how women should be more independent and self-conscious in order to think about their own identity. To understand the processes, both the identity construction and the ideal of femininity in Japan, we will base the study on the western theories such as Bhabha K. Hommi and Stuart Hall´s reflections on Identity and, Michael Foucault´s question on power institutions, and others. By using different propositions, we intend to demystify the stereotypical representation of Japanese woman and desconstruct it to display the process of reframing their image in Japan.

This thesis is an examination of contemporary artist Mariko Mori's use of fashion in her work from 1993 to 2001. Contained within her sartorial phrasing is an involved relationship with the body, female and Japanese, as it exists within technological modernity. Tumult characterizes Mori's body as she images it early on in her career. This highly alienating space in which she positions herself gradually transitions to a space of respite for the performative body of another actor by 2001's Wave UFO. Wave UFO creates a mediated space for healing the modern body plagued with isolation through transcendence provided by technological means. Minimalist fashion, as a kind of plastic mechanization of corporeal experience, helps to accomplish this healing. Mori's Wave UFO attendant costumes present minimalist fashion as a location for reconciling spiritual identity in a postmodern age. The flat-panel costumes have the effect of disfiguring the bodies of the attendants into amorphous plasticized shells (much like the backdrop of the Wave UFO) and mechanizing the movements of the wearer. The sleek technological sensibility of the costumes, in conjunction with the stark sterility of the immersive Wave UFO interior, are the culminating expression of the ambivalent liminality Mori's body takes from 1993-1999. This is a body that floats between absence and presence, self and other. This thesis begins with a survey of Mori's 1990s work, including her 1994 self-portrait series that launched the artist into international recognition. The 1993-94 self-portraits present a playful mimicry and a self-aware exploration of regional dress as it is found on the streets of Tokyo. By the end of the decade the play shifts to minimalist self-denial that achieves a transcendence of the imaged body once grounded in the urban self-portraits. After exploring necessary and appropriate contexts of Japanese fashion and other cultural contexts, the thesis culminates in an extended analysis of Mori's 2001 Wave UFO installation. Mori's suggestion that technology can achieve transcendence of the body furthers the theorization that minimalist fashion overcomes the physical and ideological boundaries of human existence in a modern world.

The images of Japanese women in the Japanese contemporary literature (1935-1975) — Short-stories crowned with the Akutagawa Prize Japanese women carry with them the myth to be Japanese. But is it a reality? How were their lives before the Second World War, after it and during the economic growth until 1975? Were they unhappy submitted to this myth? I try to present the contemporary history of Japanese women through a research on the short-stories crowned with the Akutagawa Prize from 1935 to 1975. These short-stories are autobiographic, journalistic or documentary, and they are a true reflection of their time. Also, the female characters give witness of Japanese women’s lives in each period through literature, that is the most active, direct, touching and understandable form for the reader. Thus, I intend to contribute to a larger understanding of the Japanese society and culture. The first chapter is devoted to the period of war between 1935 and 1945. And the second chapter is about the period of rapid economic upturn, starting with the ruins and famine of the post-war years from 1945 to 1955. Indeed, the post-war years end in 1955 in Japan. Then, the third chapter is about the dazzling economic growth between 1955 and 1970. And finally in the fourth chapter, during the period going from 1970 to 1975, most Japanese people think they are now out of misery, being part of the middle class and happy about the situation. In total, I examine 57 short-stories : 18 in the first chapter, 10 in the second chapter, 21 in the third chapter, and 8 in the fourth chapter. Also, there are 112 female characters to analyse in all : 41 in the fist chapter, 18 in the second chapter, 33 in the third chapter and 20 in the fourth chapter. Through the evolution and changes along this period of time, the lives of our heroines change too. First, they are kept under the strict respect of social rules. And during the war, they suffer from poverty and misery. Then, the time comes for the share of tasks between women and men. From then on, women take mostly care of their homes. Besides, let us note that the importance of the education of girls is continuously stressed, even if the main aim is to make them “good wives and good mothers”. Finally, Japanese women’s morale stays intact during the period chosen for our research. A significant change seems to happen thereafter. / Images de femmes dans la littérature japonaise contemporaine (1935-1975) — cas des nouvelles couronnées par le prix Akutagawa Les Japonaises portent en elles le mythe de la Japonaise. Mais est-ce une réalité ? Quelle était leur vie pendant la période de l’avant-guerre, de l’après-guerre et de la croissance économique jusqu’en 1975 ? Étaient-elles malheureuses en étant soumises à ce mythe ? Nous avons tenté de transcrire l’histoire contemporaine des Japonaises à travers une recherche sur les nouvelles couronnées par le prix Akutagawa entre 1935 et 1975. Les œuvres sont autobiographiques, journalistiques ou documentaires, ancrées dans chaque époque et leurs personnages féminins témoignent des vies des Japonaises de leur temps sous forme littéraire, c’est-à-dire la forme la plus active, la plus directe, la plus touchante et la plus compréhensive pour le lecteur. Ainsi contribuons-nous à la compréhension de la société et de la culture japonaises. Le premier chapitre est consacré à la période de la guerre entre 1935 et 1945. Le deuxième chapitre concerne l’époque de la remontée économique rapide, partant des ruines et de la famine de l’après-guerre entre 1945 et 1955. En effet, 1955 marque la fin de l’après-guerre au Japon. Le troisième chapitre porte sur l’époque de la croissance économique fleurissante entre 1955 et 1970. Et le dernier et quatrième chapitre parcourt la période entre 1970 et 1975. C’est la période où quasiment tous les Japonais se croient sortis de la misère, ils se considèrent appartenir à la classe moyenne et ils s’en réjouissent. Quant au nombre de nouvelles, nous analysons en tout cinquante-sept nouvelles : dix-huit œuvres dans le premier chapitre, dix dans le deuxième, vingt-et-une dans le troisième et huit dans le quatrième. Et nous comptons au total cent-douze personnages féminins à étudier, soit quarante-et-un dans le premier chapitre, dix-huit dans le deuxième, trente-trois dans le troisième et vingt dans le quatrième. À travers l'évolution et les bouleversements dans le temps, les vies de nos héroïnes se modifient. D’abord, elles vivent dans la stricte obéissance de la règle sociale. Ensuite, elles tombent dans la pauvreté et la misère à cause de la guerre. Et puis arrive le temps du partage des tâches entre les hommes et les femmes et ces dernières se retirent presque complètement dans leur foyer. Néanmoins, l’éducation des filles est renforcée régulièrement, même si la raison principale est d'en faire de « bonnes épouses et bonnes mères ». Nous remarquons que la morale des Japonaises ne se transforme pas pendant la période concernée par notre recherche. Un changement significatif semble intervenir par la suite.

Ce mémoire propose de mettre à jour l’impact d’une culture visuelle donnée dans la formation et la construction d’une identité féminine japonaise. L’idéal en question, connu sous le nom de kawaii, prône le caractère mignon, adorable et enfantin de la gent japonaise. Les représentations féminines y étant rattachées diffèrent en fonction des lieux et des clientèles visées. Ces différents façonnements ont par la suite une influence prépondérante sur la vision, la perception et l’acceptation sociale des Japonaises, notamment face à leur identité, mais aussi face aux rôles qu’elles entretiennent dans la société moderne. L’esthétisme du kawaii a vivement été critiqué dans les milieux anthropologiques. Nombreux sont ceux qui perçoivent cette image enfantine de manière négative, lui attribuant une influence particulièrement néfaste. Cependant, ces jugements découlent d’une incompréhension liée à des connotations spécifiques, ainsi qu’à des erreurs épistémologiques. L’hégémonie médiatique rattachée à l’idéal du kawaii provient surtout d’une politique économique favorisée par le gouvernement, répondant au nom de Cool Japan. Les représentations féminines y étant associées prônent le caractère docile, innocent et inférieur de la femme. Ces images ne sont pourtant pas représentatives des identités et des rôles véhiculés par la femme japonaise. Elles ne servent qu’à renforcer des présuposés culturels. De par le kawaii, les intellectuels, qu’ils soient Japonais ou non, ont bien souvent fait endosser aux Japonaises des identités et des rôles stéréotypés, qui sont pourtant loin d’être le lot de la jeune génération. / The overall objective of this thesis is to update the impact of a given visual culture in the formation and construction of a female identity in Japan. This ideal, known as kawaii, advocates cuteness and childish behaviour. The female representations related to this ideal differ according to the different groups and locations analyzed. As a result, these variances have an important influence on the vision, perception and social acceptance of Japanese women, particularly when they are linked to their identity. The aesthetics of kawaii has been strongly criticized by the anthropological community. Cuteness has often been looked in a negative way as having harmful consequences for Japanese women. However, these judgments stem from a misunderstanding related to epistemological errors, as well as the misuse of the connotations of Japanese words. The hegemony attached to the ideal of kawaii mainly comes from an economic policy promoted by the government and known as Cool Japan. The female representations found in this policy are linked to the inferior state of Japanese women. Despite that, these images are not representative of identities and roles associated with Japanese women. They mainly reinforce cultural stereotypes. Through the kawaii phenomenon, intellectuals, be they Japanese or not, have often endorsed fixed identity and stereotyped gender roles for Japanese women, which are far from the reality of the younger generation.

Ce mémoire propose de mettre à jour l’impact d’une culture visuelle donnée dans la formation et la construction d’une identité féminine japonaise. L’idéal en question, connu sous le nom de kawaii, prône le caractère mignon, adorable et enfantin de la gent japonaise. Les représentations féminines y étant rattachées diffèrent en fonction des lieux et des clientèles visées. Ces différents façonnements ont par la suite une influence prépondérante sur la vision, la perception et l’acceptation sociale des Japonaises, notamment face à leur identité, mais aussi face aux rôles qu’elles entretiennent dans la société moderne. L’esthétisme du kawaii a vivement été critiqué dans les milieux anthropologiques. Nombreux sont ceux qui perçoivent cette image enfantine de manière négative, lui attribuant une influence particulièrement néfaste. Cependant, ces jugements découlent d’une incompréhension liée à des connotations spécifiques, ainsi qu’à des erreurs épistémologiques. L’hégémonie médiatique rattachée à l’idéal du kawaii provient surtout d’une politique économique favorisée par le gouvernement, répondant au nom de Cool Japan. Les représentations féminines y étant associées prônent le caractère docile, innocent et inférieur de la femme. Ces images ne sont pourtant pas représentatives des identités et des rôles véhiculés par la femme japonaise. Elles ne servent qu’à renforcer des présuposés culturels. De par le kawaii, les intellectuels, qu’ils soient Japonais ou non, ont bien souvent fait endosser aux Japonaises des identités et des rôles stéréotypés, qui sont pourtant loin d’être le lot de la jeune génération. / The overall objective of this thesis is to update the impact of a given visual culture in the formation and construction of a female identity in Japan. This ideal, known as kawaii, advocates cuteness and childish behaviour. The female representations related to this ideal differ according to the different groups and locations analyzed. As a result, these variances have an important influence on the vision, perception and social acceptance of Japanese women, particularly when they are linked to their identity. The aesthetics of kawaii has been strongly criticized by the anthropological community. Cuteness has often been looked in a negative way as having harmful consequences for Japanese women. However, these judgments stem from a misunderstanding related to epistemological errors, as well as the misuse of the connotations of Japanese words. The hegemony attached to the ideal of kawaii mainly comes from an economic policy promoted by the government and known as Cool Japan. The female representations found in this policy are linked to the inferior state of Japanese women. Despite that, these images are not representative of identities and roles associated with Japanese women. They mainly reinforce cultural stereotypes. Through the kawaii phenomenon, intellectuals, be they Japanese or not, have often endorsed fixed identity and stereotyped gender roles for Japanese women, which are far from the reality of the younger generation.

本博士論文では、戦間期から戦後にかけての宝塚歌劇団と、アメリカのトランスナショナルな関係性について焦点をあて、アメリカと継続的な接点があった宝塚女性演者に着目をする。宝塚演者のような特殊性を持つ女性たちに焦点を当てることは、当時の新たな日本人女性像を見出すことを可能にする。同時に、トランスナショナルな視点を用いた結果、彼女たちが日本人女性としてのアイデンティを国内だけではなく、国外とのやり取りを通じて構築していたという事実を明らかにする。 / This project is one of the first attempts to explore the transnational history of Takarazuka by following the complex processes by which Americans and Japanese used Takarazuka to explore the contours of Japanese identity and femininity in the period from the late 1930s to the 1950s. Especially, through this dissertation, I will focus on the voices of Takarazuke females whose historical voices have barely been featured in the previous research. By using transnationalism as a main analytical theme, I argue that these females used the given opportunities to recreate their own identities, especially through the difficulties of negotiating the boundaries during the time when the role of Japanese women was continuously transforming. / 博士(アメリカ研究) / Doctor of Philosophy in American Studies / 同志社大学 / Doshisha University

Cette thèse porte sur la constructions des carrières migratoires de femmes issues de la Corée du Nord, de la Corée du Sud et du Japon. L’enjeu est de comprendre la construction objective et subjective de ces parcours à partir d’héritages historiques et culturels des sociétés d'origine, de politiques migratoires, de bifurcations biographiques, d’expériences sociales et de travail au sein d’« espaces totalitaires ». Dans la première partie, la thèse se penche sur les migrations internationales de femmes ainsi que sur la démarche méthodologique mise en place pour collecter des données comparatives auprès de femmes en souffrance au cœur de terrains « minés » et pour les analyser. La deuxième partie s’efforce de reconstituer les carrières objectives des migrantes en se concentrant sur les contextes de départ, la construction des projets migratoires et les contextes d’arrivée. Les migrantes se heurteront à la réitération des grammaires du mépris et de l’injustice – au sens de L. Roulleau-Berger – , aux violences et aux dominations influencées par les imaginaires coloniaux ou nationaux de la population hôte. Les corps « faibles » de ces femmes, au regard des imaginaires individuels et collectifs des sociétés d’accueil, deviennent des corps sensuels, sexuels, résistants etc. et devront se construire socialement au sein « d’espaces totalitaires » érigés au regard de ces imaginaires. La troisième partie analyse la construction des carrières subjectives des femmes issue de la péninsule coréenne et du Japon. Entre les obligations hypertrophiées de s’adapter imposées aux migrantes par le biais de techniques de mortifications – au sens de Goffman – les rôles infligés et les stratégies d’adaptation, elles tentent de survivre à leurs imaginaires migratoires déçus en déployant des tactiques qui se définissent par le refus de toute participation personnelle, l’assimilation du rôle imposé par la société d’accueil ou l’émancipation. / This thesis focuses on the construction of migratory careers of women from North Korea, South Korea and Japan. The challenge is to understand the objective and subjective structure of these routes from historical and cultural heritage of the societies of origin, from migration policies, from biographical bifurcations and from social and work experiences in “totalitarian spaces”. In the first part, the thesis focuses on international migration of women as well as the methodology established to collect comparative data from suffering women in "mined" fieldwork and to analyze them. The second part tries to reconstruct the objective careers of migrants focusing on starting contexts, on the construction of migration projects and on the arrival contexts. The migrants will face the reiteration of grammar of contempt and injustice - in the sense of L. Roulleau-Berger – and the violence and dominations influenced by colonial or national imaginary of the host population. The “weak” bodies of these women, under individual and collective imaginary of host societies, become sensual bodies, sexual bodies, resistant bodies etc. and will build socially in "totalitarian spaces" erected in view of these imaginary. The third section analyzes the construction of the subjective Career of Women of the Korean Peninsula and Japan. Between the bloated obligations to adapt (imposed on migrants through process of mortifications - in the sense of Goffman –), the imposed roles and the adaptive strategies, they try to survive their disappointed migration imaginary by deploying tactics that define by the refusal of any personal participation, assimilation of the role imposed by the host society or emancipation.