Master of Science / Department of Agricultural Economics / Benjamin B. Schwab / Khat, a lucrative cash crop cultivated in and near the Horn of Africa, is gaining the interest of researchers around the globe. Despite its potential to provide excess income, economic opportunity, and access to technology to those who produce it, the conflicting legal status around the globe causes policy and trade disputes between countries. Research on the impact of khat production on household welfare is sparse. To address this, the purpose of this research is to determine what factors affect the decision to grow khat and subsequently determine the impact of khat production on labor, income, education expenditure, and food security. Data was extracted from a survey conducted in early 2017. A total of 365 households in the Amhara Region of Ethiopia were surveyed. We estimate the factors affecting the decision to grow khat by employing use of two logit models and one linear probability model to calculate marginal effects. We estimate the impact of khat production on labor, income, education expenditure, and food security through propensity score matching. Khat production appears to be adopted by households who are educated and apt to adopt improved technologies. These households are likely to own a donkey, own irrigation, and own more plots than a non-producing household. Practicing seed saving, conservation techniques, and growing more crops decreases the likelihood of growing khat. Regarding impacts, khat production increases on-farm male (41.8%) and female (62.1%) labor and income (41.7%), but decreases education expense (-10.7%), food consumption scores (-15.9%), and number of food shortage months (-16.2%). Overall, khat production uses more labor, generates higher incomes, and decreases food shortage months, but decreases expenditure on education and dietary diversity.

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À partir des premiers corpus funéraires de l’Égypte ancienne (Textes des Pyramides et Textes des Sarcophages), cette étude propose une nouvelle approche de la conception de la personne dans la pensée égyptienne, par le truchement de la notion de corps. De fait, parmi l’ensemble des éléments connus pour composer la personne (le ka, le ba, le ib, le nom, l’ombre…), le corps est le seul à pouvoir être désigné par différents termes, à savoir Haw, XA.t ou D.t. Ceci implique donc que le corps connaît plusieurs états, chacun entretenant des relations distinctes avec l’un ou l’autre des composants de la personne. Celle-ci n’étant pas considérée comme une somme d’éléments constants dans le temps et dans l’espace, l’étude de la notion de corps et de ses différents aspects permet ainsi d’appréhender la personne dans sa globalité, qu’il s’agisse de celle de l’homme ou des dieux. Dans cette perspective, l’intérêt des textes funéraires considérés est de présenter la personne du défunt, évoquant ainsi à la fois ses caractéristiques terrestres et divines. Cette recherche est envisagée selon deux axes, avec dans un premier temps une analyse lexicographique des termes Haw, XA.t et D.t. Une seconde partie est ensuite consacrée à l’analyse anthropologique, visant à détailler le système de représentation de la personne en déterminant les différences entre la personne humaine ou divine, mais également à travers les transformations subies par le défunt. / Founded on the early funerary literature of Ancient Egypt (Pyramids Texts and Coffin Texts), this research intend to offer a new approach on the concept of person in the egyptian thinking through the notion of body. Indeed, among all the components of the person (ka, ba, ib, name, shadow…), the body is the only one which can be designated by different words, namely Haw, XA.t or D.t. therefore, it suggests that the body can have different states of being, each one having distinctive relationships with one or the other element. As the person is not considered as a sum of different permanent components in time and space, the study of the notion of body and of its various aspects allow us to grasp the concept of person as a whole, in human context as well as divine. Thus, from this viewpoint, the interest of the funerary literature is to present the person of the deceased, with his characteristics of both kinds. This study is led in two ways, with first a lexicological analysis of the words Haw, XA.t and D.t. Then a second part presents the anthropological analysis, aiming at detail the system of representation of the person in the Egyptian way of thinking by defining the differences between human and divine person, and through the transformations endured by the deceased.

Background - Khat is a mild stimulant plant chewed by a limited segment of the population mainly in the eastern parts of Ethiopia for social facilitation and religious purposes. In recent decades, the use of khat has spread to all parts of the country and its social, economic and political impact has increased significantly at national level. In cities like Addis Ababa, the traditional purposes are superseded and it is now chewed mainly for recreational purposes. Following this development, many people have raised concerns on the potentially adverse socioeconomic and psychological effects of khat on the current generation, particularly the youth. The main issues raised are the misuse of income, the waste of productive time on chewing khat, and the adverse consequences on family cohesion and health. Those who argue in favor of khat cite its positive impact on increasing productivity, high economic returns and traditional values. These arguments on khat are not based on substantiated evidence and this research attempted to answer this question by assessing the ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ socioeconomic and psychological effects of khat on the chewers living in Addis Ababa. Drug control policies intersect with much of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and Ethiopia has not yet developed a policy on khat. This research intends to make its contribution to the development of the policy by highlighting the socioeconomic and psychological effects on the chewers. Objective –To assess the effects of khat on the income; use of time/time management/; productivity, and psychological well-being of chewers in the city of Addis Ababa. The study is related to policies of Ethiopia in relation to the production, marketing and consumption of khat. It makes policy recommendations based on the assessed costs and benefits. Methodology - The study, using snowball sampling, was conducted in 2018 with 84 khat users. The data collection methods employed were structured questionnaire focus group discussions, narrations of life stories and interviews with key informants. An extensive literature review was also conducted. Result – Respondents reported the diversion of financial resources to purchase khat compromising other personal and family needs and a waste of working hours on chewing khat. There were mixed results found on its effects on productivity. Users also reported that khat made them vulnerable to other addictions such as alcohol, cigarettes and hard drugs and to a number of social and psychological problems. Conclusion - Khat has a significant adverse impact on income and the efficient use of time of chewers. The findings on the effect on productivity are inconclusive. The reported physical and psychological effects on productivity need to be scientifically proven. Chronic use of khat is detrimental to mental health and leads to other serious health consequences. It distorts social and family relationships and inhibits the ability of the chewer to significantly execute his/her social responsibilities. It hurts the self-esteem of the chewers and makes them lose a sense of purpose in their lives. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop a national policy on khat. However, a comprehensive study should be conducted to exploit the potential benefits of khat (mood lifting and medicinal values) by using khat in a modest and controlled way. The social and economic interest of the suppliers; its religious and cultural significance, and environmental impacts should also be considered. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

This is an ethnographic study, highlighting protecting factors for children‘s ability to focus. Schools must do its very best for children, increasing their possibilities to concentrate, since this has a significant impact on both school performance and social interaction. Schools have limited resources. Can knowledge and experience from a developing country give useful and interesting input? Are there health factors for this group of pupils in an African school? The purpose of this research is to study children’s attention abilities and investigate supporting factors for pupil’s possibilities to concentrate as well as to determine the usefulness of these experiences in a Swedish school. In this study I found five salutogenic factors, which seemed to have a positive impact on children‘s ability to concentrate: Having possibilities to study makes a big difference if you are living in Ethiopia, so the importance of expectation is one of the factors. Expectations, from both society and families encouraged the pupils to do their best. Children are seen close to each other in bare classrooms. One can see them helping each other to focus during lessons. Cooperation and fellowship seemed to provide security and happiness, and thus, in turn increased the children‘s possibilities to pay attention and absorb knowledge. Learning at appropriate level in a collective learning process possibly helped pupils with problems in the area of attention/ concentrate. In addition to these environmental, salutogenic factors figured the use of a drug.In countries around the Horn of Africa is use of the herb ―khat‖ common. Some of the children self-medicate themselves to increase their concentration ability.

Ce travail visait initialement à identifier les facteurs de risque spécifiques qui pouvaient être associés à l'épidémie de VIH à Djibouti. La valorisation de ce travail de recherche a conduit à la mise en place d'un système de surveillance épidémiologique intégré opérationnel. En effet, il est vite apparu dommage de ne pas faire bénéficier de ce système de surveillance spécifique au VIH les autres priorités de surveillance épidémiologique du pays. Nous avons ainsi abordé le système de surveillance épidémiologique dans sa globalité. Le système en place souffrait alors d'une faiblesse des ressources allouées, d'une faible adhésion du système de soins en pleine réforme et de l'absence d'une volonté d'en faire un outil d'aide à la décision. C'est dans ce contexte que nous avons réorienté notre travail et nous avons reçu un fort appui politique et technique pour relever des défis de taille dans un pays en développement. Grâce à l'aide de l'OMS, nous avons mis en place un système de surveillance sentinelle du VIH qui ne s'appuie pas uniquement sur un seul groupe à risque ou dans un espace limité mais sur la population générale permettant des enquêtes annuelles anonymes non corrélées. Actuellement nous évoluons vers une surveillance de deuxième génération. Nous avons par ailleurs mis en place un système de surveillance intégré des maladies évitables par la vaccination (Diphtérie, Coqueluche, Tétanos néonatal, Poliomyélite, Rougeole, Méningite, Oreillons, Rubéole) et des maladies à potentiel épidémique telles que le Choléra, le Paludisme, la grippe aviaire et les fièvres hémorragiques. L'approche suivie est surtout une approche clinique ou syndromique secondairement confirmée par la biologie. Deux travaux de recherche ont été finalisés : 1. les facteurs de risque du VIH à Djibouti. Cette étude a révélé certains facteurs de risque spécifiques au contexte djiboutien. La consommation 8 du Khat par des chômeurs et la transfusion sanguine sont spécifiquement associées à l'infection par le VIH à Djibouti. 2. la dynamique de l'épidémie de choléra dans la région de la Corne de l'Afrique. Cette étude est nourrie d'une riche expérience de terrain ayant conduit au suivi de populations migrantes clandestines, vecteurs de l'épidémie dans la Corne de l'Afrique. Notre travail a permis l'identification d'un nouveau sérotype inconnu dans les précédentes vagues épidémiques de choléra en Afrique. Par ailleurs, nous nous sommes intéressés aux vecteurs car à Djibouti les maladies à transmission vectorielle constitue un problème de santé publique fortement prévalent. En effet, en dehors du paludisme, nous avons identifié des cas de Dengue, de West-Nile, de Chikungunya et de Myiase. De surcroît, le contexte régional de l'épidémie de la Fièvre de la Vallée du Rift n'était guère rassurant. Il était urgent de mettre en place un dispositif de surveillance entomologique à travers la création d'une équipe bien formée, la réhabilitation et l'équipement du laboratoire d'entomologie. Ceci a été permis grâce à l'appui du NAMRU-3. En peu de temps, nous avons pu monter ce dispositif et réaliser la surveillance, la capture, l'élevage et la lutte biologique vis-à-vis de ces vecteurs. Au total, nous avons abordé une problématique épidémiologique et de veille sanitaire dans un contexte de ressources limitées aux priorités multiples. Nous avons pris prétexte de notre thèse et de nos collaborations scientifiques internationales pour déployer un nouveau système de surveillance épidémiologique, formant du personnel, mobilisant un important investissement de l'État dans la mise en place du système d'information sanitaire. Rapidement, notre système a permis de détecter des épidémies de choléra, de rougeole et de coqueluche mais aussi de pathologies émergentes qui étaient peu connues (car possiblement peu recherchées) dans cette contrée du monde : la myiase, la 9 grippe aviaire H5N1, le virus du West-Nile entres autres. Ainsi notre travail trouve sa cohérence dans la richesse des expériences que nous avons pu échanger avec les autres pays en développement, dans un dialogue Nord-Sud original et respectueux du besoin d'augmenter les capacités et les ressources locales et le transfert de technologies et standards contemporains.

<p>This study presents the extent, history and process of forest decline in Awassa watershed, south central Ethiopia. By combining different data sources such as satellite images, social surveys and historical documents, forest decline is described quantitatively and qualitatively and the main causes behind this process are identified. Forest decline in the study area is interpreted as the result of a combination of socio-political changes, economic activities, population growth, cultural patterns and agricultural developments while local conflicts over resources also play an important role. The findings of this study reveal forest decline to be a continuous process associated with spatial fragmentation and location specific losses. The recent increase in production of the cash crop khat has made a significant impact on the forest through several mechanisms: it relocates the agricultural/forest frontier; it causes intrusion and permanent settlement within forests; and fragments remaining forest. The analysis of human-spatial boundaries indicates unsystematic management of the natural forests by several administrative units. As a result, multiple claims have been made on the forests simultaneously as weak control and accountability conditions have negatively affected forest management. The main conclusions are as follows: Forest decline in the study area has a long history, spanning at least one century. The causes are identifiable as both temporally spaced individual events as well as chains of events. These interact with each other at different levels and scales as well as with the geographical properties of the study area. Land users’ rationale in weighing the advantages between keeping and replacing the forest is affected by economic gain, market conditions and transport facilities. Multiple claims to the forest land and weak accountability contribute to inefficient management, which accelerates forest decline.</p>

This study presents the extent, history and process of forest decline in Awassa watershed, south central Ethiopia. By combining different data sources such as satellite images, social surveys and historical documents, forest decline is described quantitatively and qualitatively and the main causes behind this process are identified. Forest decline in the study area is interpreted as the result of a combination of socio-political changes, economic activities, population growth, cultural patterns and agricultural developments while local conflicts over resources also play an important role. The findings of this study reveal forest decline to be a continuous process associated with spatial fragmentation and location specific losses. The recent increase in production of the cash crop khat has made a significant impact on the forest through several mechanisms: it relocates the agricultural/forest frontier; it causes intrusion and permanent settlement within forests; and fragments remaining forest. The analysis of human-spatial boundaries indicates unsystematic management of the natural forests by several administrative units. As a result, multiple claims have been made on the forests simultaneously as weak control and accountability conditions have negatively affected forest management. The main conclusions are as follows: Forest decline in the study area has a long history, spanning at least one century. The causes are identifiable as both temporally spaced individual events as well as chains of events. These interact with each other at different levels and scales as well as with the geographical properties of the study area. Land users’ rationale in weighing the advantages between keeping and replacing the forest is affected by economic gain, market conditions and transport facilities. Multiple claims to the forest land and weak accountability contribute to inefficient management, which accelerates forest decline.

Background Studies on course and outcome of schizophrenia coming from low income countries are increasingly becoming important to challenge the existing dogma claiming good outcome in these countries. Besides clinical course and outcome, mortality is considered a very important outcome measure for schizophrenia. Culture and tradition play a significant role in the manifestations of severe mental illnesses (SMI). Khat is a culturally accepted plant endemic to Eastern Africa, which is chewed by people for its stimulating effect. It is believed that Khat influences the course and outcome of schizophrenia although systematic studies are scarce. Patients with SMI continue to chew khat despite advice from their doctors to desist. Reasons for this behavior were not fully investigated before. Objectives              -     To describe the 5-year clinical course and outcome and mortality of schizophrenia in Butajira. -       To explore traditional views on psychosis in the semi-nomadic Borana population. -       To describe the perceived causes and preferred treatment for SMI in the semi-nomadic Borana population -       To explore reasons for khat chewing behavior in people with SMI in Butajira. Methods The studies were done in two sites: Butajira and Borana. The Butajira study involved screening, using CIDI and Key Informants (KIs), of more than 68,000 adults aged 15-49. Of these, 321 people were diagnosed with schizophrenia and were followed-up for five years to look into their clinical course and outcome, including mortality. A qualitative study involving 37 men with SMI and 30 female caregivers was conducted in Butajira to study reasons why patients continue to chew khat despite their physicians’ advice against it. The Borana study of a remote semi-nomadic population in southern Ethiopia, used qualitative methods involving 56 KIs to identify descriptions of psychosis, perceived causes and preferred treatment in the community. Cases identified by the KIs also underwent SCAN interview for confirmatory diagnosis.   Results The five year follow-up of schizophrenia patients showed that 45% of participants were continuously symptomatic with 30.3% having had continuous psychotic episode. About 20% had experienced continuous remission. Being single (OR = 3.41, 95% CI = 1.08-10.82, P = 0.037), on antipsychotic treatment for at least 50% of follow up time (OR = 2.28, 95% CI = 1.12-4.62, P = 0.023), and having a diagnosis of paranoid subtype of schizophrenia (OR = 3.68, 95% CI = 1.30-10.44, P = 0.014) were associated with longer period of remission. A total of 38 (12.4%) patients, thirty four men (11.1%) and four women (1.3%) died during the 5-year follow-up period. The mean age (SD) of the deceased for both sexes was 35 (7.35): 35.3 (7.4) for men and 32.3 (6.8) for women. The most common cause of death was infection, 18/38 (47.4%) followed by severe malnutrition, 5/38 (13.2%) and suicide 4/38 (10.5%). The overall SMR was 5.98 (95% CI = 4.09 to 7.87): 6.27 (95% C I = 4.16 to 8.38) for men and 4.30 (95% CI = 1.02 to 8.52) for women. Patients residing in rural areas had lower mortality with adjusted HR of 0.30 (95% CI = 0.12-0.69) but those with insidious onset had higher mortality with adjusted HR 2.37 (95% CI = 1.04-5.41). Treatment with antipsychotics for less than 50% of the follow-up time was also associated with higher mortality, adjusted HR 2.66 (1.054-6.72). In the Borana study, the incongruity between local and psychiatric concepts in the CIDI lay mainly in the fact that KIs described characteristics of marata (madness) in terms of overt behavioral symptoms instead of thought disturbances. Following the focus group discussions, participants identified 8 individuals with schizophrenia and 13 with a psychotic mood disorder, confirmed by SCAN interview. Supernatural causes such as possession by evil spirits, curse, bewitchment, ‘exposure to wind’ and subsequent attack by evil spirits in postnatal women; bio-psycho-social causes such as infections (malaria), loss, ‘thinking too much’, and alcohol and khat abuse were mentioned as causes of SMI. The preferred treatments for severe mental illness included mainly traditional approaches, such as consulting Borana wise men or traditional healers, prayer, holy water treatment and, finally, seeking modern health care. Regarding khat and SMI in Butajira, reasons given by patients as well as caregivers were more or less congruent: social pressure, a means for survival by improving function, combating medication side effects, to experience pleasure and curbing appetite.  Conclusion Schizophrenia runs a chronic and non-remitting course and was associated with very high premature mortality in Butajira. Continued treatment with antipsychotics has been a consistent predictor of favorable outcome and reduced mortality. Case identification in studies of psychotic disorders in traditional communities are likely to benefit from combining structured interviews with the key informant method. Planning mental health care in traditional communities needs to involve influential people and traditional healers to increase acceptability of modern mental health care. Patients with SMI chewed khat for some important reasons that clinicians need to consider in their management.

The biographical details of the 7828 individuals listed in the biographical dictionary known as the Ta'rikh Baghdad were entered in a database and used to create a profile of the hadith community of Baghdad. The thesis explains how the database was constructed and shows how the data can be used. Evidence derived from the many references to colleagues and relatives in the biographies made it possible to date most of the undated biographies, and to construct a chronological framework within which information on the origins, occupations, tribes and other personal attributes of the Khatib's subjects could be analysed. Changes in the frequency of these attributes over time were related to conversion rates, immigration, and the popular appeal of hadith study. The thesis also demonstrates the usefulness of the fortuitously dated topographical references found in the biographies. These were used with maps to show changes in residence patterns over the 320 years covered by the Ta'rikh Baghdad.