The primary purpose of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of a scaled roller rig for accurately assessing the contact mechanics and dynamics between a profiled steel wheel and rail, as is commonly used in rail vehicles. The established creep models of Kalker and Johnson and Vermeulen are used to establish correction factors, scaling factors, and transformation factors that allow us to relate the results from a scaled rig to those of a tangent track. �Correction factors, which are defined as the ratios of a given quantity (such as creep coefficient) between a roller rig and a track, are derived and used to relate the results between a full-size rig and a full-size track. Scaling factors are derived to relate the same quantities between roller rigs of different scales. Finally, transformation factors are derived by combining scaling factors with correction factors in order to relate the results from a scaled roller rig to a full-size tangent track. Close-end formulae for creep force correction, scaling, and transformation factors are provided in the thesis, along with their full derivation and an explanation of their limitations; these formulae can be used to calculate the correction factors for any wheel-rail geometry and scaling. For Kalker's theory, it is shown that the correction factor for creep coefficients is strictly a function of wheel and rail geometry, primarily the wheel and roller diameter ratio. For Johnson and Vermeulen's theory, the effects of creepage, scale, and load on the creep force correction factor are demonstrated. �It is shown that INRETS' scaling strategy causes the normalized creep curve to be identical for both a full-size and a scaled roller rig. �It is also shown that the creep force correction factors for Johnson and Vermeulen's model increase linearly with creepage, starting with the values predicted by Kalker's theory. �Therefore, Kalker's theory provides a conservative estimate for creep force correction factors. �A case study is presented to demonstrate the creep curves, as well as the correction and transformation factors, for a typical wheel-rail configuration. �Additionally, two studies by other authors that calculate the correction factor for Kalker's creep coefficients for specific wheel-rail geometries are reviewed and show full agreement with the results that are predicted by the formulae derived in this study. �Based on a review of existing and past roller rigs, as well as the findings of this thesis, a number of recommendations are given for the design of a roller rig for the purpose of assessing the wheel-rail contact mechanics. �A scaling strategy (INRETS') is suggested, and equations for power consumption of a roller rig are derived. Recommendations for sensors and actuators necessary for such a rig are also given. Special attention is given to the resolution and accuracy of velocity sensors, which are required to properly measure and plot the creep curves. / Master of Science

Defected wheel are one the major reasons endangered state of railroad vehicles safety statue, due to vehicle derailment and worsen the quality of freight and passenger transportation. Therefore, timely defect detection for monitoring and detecting the state of defects is highly critical. This thesis presents a passive non-contact acoustic structural health monitoring approach using ultrasonic acoustic emissions (UAE) to detect certain defects on different structures, as well as, classifying the type of the defect on them. The acoustic emission signals used in this study are in the ultrasonic range (18-120 kHz), which is significantly higher than the majority of the research in this area thus far. For the proposed method, an impulse excitation, such as a hammer strike, is applied to the structure. In addition, ultrasound techniques have higher sensitivity to both surface and subsurface defects, which make the defect detection more accurate. Three structures considered for this study are: 1) a longitudinal beam, 2) a lifting weight, 3) an actual rail-wheel. A longitudinal beam was used at the first step for a better understanding of physics of the ultrasound propagation from the defect, as well, develop a method for extracting the signature response of the defect. Besides, the inherent directionality of the ultrasound microphone increases the signal to noise ratio (SNR) and could be useful in the noisy areas. Next, by considering the ultimate goal of the project, lifting weight was chosen, due to its similarity to the ultimate goal of this project that is a rail-wheel. A detection method and metric were developed by using the lifting weight and two type of synthetic defects were classified on this structure. Also, by using same extracted features, the same types of defects were detected and classified on an actual rail-wheel. / Master of Science

The main goal of this research is to develop new and innovative designs for insulated rail joints for improved life cycle and higher cost effectiveness. The research focuses on using electrically insulating materials that replace the epoxy used in current bonded insulated joints. Insulated joints (commonly known as "IJ") are widely used on railways to electrically insulate rail segments from each other, while mechanically connecting them together. The electrical insulation is necessary for accommodating track signals. The mechanical strength is needed to ensure the rail and IJs are able to withstand the vertical, longitudinal, and lateral forces that commonly occur on track. Insulating materials that can replace the epoxy used in bonded insulated joints are researched. The electrical insulation properties and mechanical strength of different materials are examined to determine the suitability of different materials for use in insulated joint. The most promising materials for use are determined to be fiber reinforced polymers and ceramics. Insulated joint designs are developed to accentuate the strengths of these two materials. The Insulating Metal Composite (IMC) insulated joint design that uses ceramics is determined to be the most promising of the new designs and is pursued through prototype fabrication. This particular joint design is analyzed structurally using both closed form analysis and FEA analysis using the software package ABAQUS. Electrical analysis using PSPICE is carried out on the joint. Prototypes of several design iterations of the insulating metal composites are built and tested. A proof of concept static bending test of the insulating metal composites used to build the IMC insulated joint is performed using a Tinius Olsen compressive tester. A rolling-wheel load test is performed on a prototype IMC component installed in rail. Finally, a prototype of a complete IMC insulated joint is fabricated and installed on the FAST test track at TTCI facility in Pueblo, Colorado for field evaluation. Electrical testing using a megohmmeter is performed on a complete prototype joint. Structural analysis shows that the components used to construct the IMC insulated joint can withstand the vertical and longitudinal loads applied to them. Electrical analysis shows that the joint can provide adequate electrical insulation and provides the required dielectric strength in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering. The proof of concept test shows that an IMC component can withstand 100 kips of static load without damage. The rolling-wheel load test shows that the ceramic in the IMC components can withstand a large shock load and that the rail used in the IMC insulated joints can survive repeated and shock loads. The testing of the prototype joint on the FAST track, which is ongoing at this time has shown that the new joint concept is fully capable of providing adequate electrical insulation and mechanical strength throughout the expected life of IJs. / Master of Science

The focus of this study is on the development of a state-of-the-art single-wheel roller rig for studying contact mechanics and dynamics in railroad applications. The use of indoor-based simulation tools has become a mainstay in vehicle testing for the automotive and railroad industries. In contrast to field-testing, roller rigs offer a controlled laboratory environment that can provide a successful path for obtaining data on the mechanics and dynamics of railway systems for a variety of operating conditions. The idea to develop a laboratory test rig started from the observation that there is a need for better-developed testing fixtures capable of accurately explaining the complex physics of wheel-rail contact toward designing faster, safer, and more efficient railway systems. A review of current roller rigs indicated that many desired functional requirements for studying contact mechanics currently are not available. Thus, the Virginia Tech Railway Technologies Laboratory (RTL) has embarked on a mission to develop a state-of-the-art testing facility that will allow experimental testing of contact mechanics in a dynamic, controlled, and consistent manner. VT roller rig will allow for closely replicating the boundary conditions of railroad wheel-rail contact via actively controlling all the wheel-rail interface degrees of freedom: cant angle, angle of attack, and lateral displacement. Two sophisticated independent drivelines are configured to precisely control the rotational speed of the wheels, and therefore their relative slip or creepage. A novel force measurement system, suitable for steel on steel contact, is configured to precisely measure the contact forces and moments at the contact patch. The control architecture is developed based on the SynqNet data acquisition system offered by Kollmorgen, the motors supplier. SynqNet provides a unified communication protocol between actuators, drives, and data acquisition system, hence eliminating data conversion among them. Various design analysis indicates that the rig successfully meets the set requirements: additional accuracy in measurements, and better control on the design of experiments. The test results show that the rig is capable of conducting various contact mechanics studies aimed for advancing the existing art. Beyond developing the experimental testing fixture for studying contact mechanics, this study provides a comprehensive review of the contact models. It discusses the simplifying assumptions for developing the models, compares the models functionality, and highlights the open areas that require further experimental and theoretical research. In addition, a multi-body dynamic model of the entire rig, using software package SIMPACK, is developed for conducting modal analysis of the rig and evaluating the performance of the rig's components. A MATLAB routine is also developed that provides a benchmark for developing creep curves from measurements of the rig and comparing them with existing creep curves. / Ph. D.

There currently exists no reliable, non-destructive method for measuring stress in railroads and other similar structures without the need for a calibration measurement. Major limitations which have hindered previous techniques include sensitivity to boundary conditions, insensitivity to stress, and intolerance for material and geometry uncertainty. In this work, a technique is developed which seeks to solve these challenges by extracting the spectrum relation, or dispersion curve, of a waveguide from dispersive wave propagation meaasurements. The technique is based on spectral analysis of waves in structures modeled as beams, and as such is based on relatively low frequency vibrations, as opposed to other techniques which use nonlinear elastic modeling of structures at ultrasonic frequencies. The major contribution of this work is the development of a frequency-domain based signal processing technique which is capable of compensating for the dispersive, long wavelength reflections which have limited the ability of previous techniques to go low enough in frequency to achieve high stress sensitivity. By compensating for reflections, the present work is able to automate the process of analyzing wave propagation signals such that the entire dispersion curve can be extracted, enabling the identification of various parameters including stress, stiffness, density, and other material and geometry properties. This in turn enables measuring stress, performing model-updating for material and geometry uncertainty, and being indifferent to boundary conditions. The theory and algorithmic implementation is presented, along with simulations and experimental validation on a rectangular beam. / Master of Science / The ability to detect damage or the potential for damage in structures is highly desirable, especially in industries such as civil infrastructure in which failure can be incredibly costly and dangerous. In particular, non-destructive techniques which can predict failure without interfering with the operations of a structure are particularly sought after. In this work, a technique for non-intrusively and non-destructively measuring stress is developed, with the primary application being for measuring stress in railroads. The technique seeks to advance the state-of-the-art in wave-propagation-based techniques by adding the capability to automatically identify reflected waves. With this new capability, the method is able to quickly and efficiently analyze a large set of vibration measurements to extract information about the structure's material, geometry, and loading characteristics which enables solving for stress even when the structures material, geometry, and boundary conditions are not precisely known. The technique is demonstrated on both simulated and experimental data, in which a rectangular beam is tensioned and the stress is then identified.

One of the main aspects in the development of modern diesel engines has been the direct injection systems, due to its influence in the atomization and evaporation processes. The study of all physical and chemical phenomena involved in the scarce milliseconds that the diesel injection last allows a better understanding of the injection. Therefore, it allows a better control of the combustion process (i.e. a higher energy efficiency and lower pollutant emissions). Despite its relevance, there are however many uncertainties regarding the internal flow and the air-fuel mixing process, caused by the small size of the injector ducts, the high injection pressures (i.e. high velocities in the ducts) and the transient nature of the diesel injection influenced by the needle lift. Hence, the use of numerical simulations provides invaluable data to improve the knowledge of the process. Therefore, CFD (computational fluid dynamics) simulations are each day commoner. In order to achieve the purpose of the present thesis, a comparative study of the injection process of three different diesel nozzles through a new CFD code, which simplifies the mesh creation and endows the simulation with the possibility of a dynamic mesh through the use of an AMR (adaptive mesh refinement) algorithm that refines the mesh where high gradients of the physical fields (velocity, concentration, etc.) exist, has been performed. This study has allowed to study the internal flow and diesel spray (in evaporative and non-evaporative conditions) and enlightened the relation between the nozzle geometry and the calibration parameters of the different sub-models used in the simulations (atomization, coalescence, evaporation, etc.). The computational study shows a good agreement between the experimental data and the computational results, in particular for the transient internal flow study, where the AMR algorithm has allowed a run-time mesh generation and thus the study of the needle lift without a negative influence in the mesh quality. Furthermore, the computational study of the diesel spray through an eulerian-lagrangian approach with three different nozzle geometries arose the existing relation between the spray sub-models and the nozzle geometry, so that the spray calibration was generalized for every injection system (injector). / Los sistemas de inyección directa han sido uno de los aspectos principales en el desarrollo de los motores diésel actuales, debido a su influencia en los procesos de atomización y evaporación del combustible. El estudio de todos los fenómenos físicos y químicos que ocurren durante los pocos milisegundos que dura el proceso de inyección diésel contribuye a una mejor comprensión del mismo, y por tanto, un mejor control del proceso de combustión (i.e. mejora de la eficiencia energética y reducción de las emisiones contaminantes). A pesar de su importancia, existen aún muchas incertidumbres respecto al flujo interno y al proceso de formación de la mezcla aire-combustible debido principalmente a la complejidad de su medida experimental, a causa de las pequeñas dimensiones de los orificios de los inyectores diésel, las altas presiones de inyección utilizadas (i.e. altas velocidades del combustible) y el comportamiento transitorio debido al movimiento de la aguja. Por ello, se recurre con cada vez más frecuencia al estudio computacional mediante simulaciones de CFD (computational fluid dynamics). El objetivo de la tesis es el estudio comparativo del proceso de inyección de tres geometrías de toberas de inyector diferentes mediante un novedoso código de cálculo CFD con malla adaptativa utilizado para el estudio del flujo interno y del chorro diésel, en condiciones no evaporativas y evaporativas, y arrojar luz en la relación entre la geometría de las toberas y las constantes de calibración de los diferentes sub-modelos utilizados (atomización, coalescencia, evaporación, etc.) en la simulación. La particularidad de este código CFD y el motivo por el cuál se ha elegido para la presente tesis es la generación automática de la malla mediante el algoritmo de AMR (adaptive mesh refinement) presente en el propio código, refinando el mallado en aquellas zonas donde, debido a la presencia de importantes gradientes de velocidad, concentración, etc., se requiera mayor precisión. Los resultados computacionales muestran un buen ajuste con los datos experimentales, especialmente en el caso del estudio transitorio del flujo interno, donde el algoritmo AMR ha permitido la generación dinámica de la malla y con ello el movimiento de la aguja del inyector sin afectar a la calidad de la misma. Además, el estudio computacional del chorro diésel mediante una aproximación euleriana-lagrangiana con tres geometría de toberas diferentes ha permitido generalizar la calibración de los modelos de chorros para cualquier sistema de inyección (inyector) al relacionar la variación de los parámetros de los modelos con las condiciones de inyección. / Els sistemes d'injecció directa han sigut un dels principals aspectes en el desenvolupament dels motors dièsel actuals, a causa de la seua influència en els processos d'atomització i evaporació del combustible. L'estudi de tots els fenòmens físics i químics que ocorren durant els pocs mil·lisegons que dura el procés d'injecció dièsel contribueix a un millor enteniment del mateix, i per tant, a un millor control del procés de combustió, una millora de la eficiència energètica i una reducció de les emissions contaminants. Malgrat la seua importància, hi ha encara moltes incerteses respecte al flux intern i el procés de formació de la mescla aire-combustible degut principalment a la complexitat de la mesura experimental, a causa del les menudes dimensions dels orificis dels injectors dièsel, les altes pressions d'injecció empleades (i.e. altes velocitats del combustible) y el comportament transitori degut al moviment de l'agulla. Per això, es cada volta mes freqüent d'utilització de ferramentes computacionals com les simulacions CFD (computational fluid dynamics). L'objectiu d'aquesta Tesi és l'estudi comparatiu del procés d'injecció de tres geometries de toveres d'injectors diferents mitjançant un innovador codi de càlcul CFD amb malla adaptativa utilitzat per al estudi del flux intern i de l'esprai dièsel, en condicions no evaporatives i evaporatives, i aclarir la relació entre la geometria de les toveres i les constants de calibratge dels diferents sub-models utilitzats (atomització, coalescència, evaporació, etc.) en la simulació. La particularitat d'aquest codi CFD i el motiu pel qual s'ha elegit per a la present Tesi es la generació automàtica de la malla mitjançant un algoritme AMR (\adaptive mesh refinement) present en el propi codi, el qual permet el refinat de la malla en aquelles regions que degut a la presencia d'importants gradients de velocitat, concentració, etc., es requereix major precisió. Els resultats computacionals mostren un bon ajustament amb les dades experimentals, especialment per al cas del estudi transitori del flux intern, on el algoritme AMR ha permès la generació dinàmica de la malla i en conseqüència el moviment de l'agulla del injector sense afectar negativament la qualitat d'aquesta. A més, l'estudi computacional de l'esprai mitjançant una aproximació euleriana-lagrangiana amb tres geometries de toveres diferents ha permès generalitzar el calibratge dels models d'esprai per a qualsevol sistema d'injecció (injector) al relacionar la variació dels paràmetres dels models amb les condicions d'injecció. / Jaramillo Císcar, D. (2017). Estudio experimental y computacional del proceso de inyección diésel mediante un código CFD con malla adaptativa [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/92183

Yes / The pressing necessity to renew infrastructure assets in developed railway systems leads to an increased number of activities to be scheduled annually. Scheduling of renewal activities for a railway network is a critical task because these activities often require a significant amount of time and create a capacity conflict in operation scheduling. This paper discusses economic and technological aspects, opportunities, and constraints in the renewals of multiple rail infrastructure components at several locations in a railway network. We addressed and modeled a challenging situation in which there were interrelationships between different track lines, and thus, possession of a track line could affect the other track lines and prevent renewal works on them. A mathematical formulation for the railway infrastructure renewal scheduling problem in the network context was presented to minimize the total renewal and unavailability costs. A method based on a triple-prioritization rule and an optimal sharing of renewal times allocated for different types of rail infrastructure components in a possession is proposed to solve the problem. The method was applied to a real case of a regional railway network in Northern Netherlands and it was shown that up to 13% of total costs can be saved compared with the current scheduling practice.

The development of jazz during the American industrial revolution represents a broader shift in the zeitgeist of the New World. With a rich heritage of rhythmic emphasis in both art and life, African American jazz musicians were able to internalize the increasingly polyrhythmic nature of the metropolis, and groove with the potentially oppressive presence of the machine. Their brazen embrace of the temporal encouraged artists of all media, replacing the burden of permanence and exactitude with the fearlessness of an improvising jazz soloist. The jazz-inspired works of Le Corbusier and Piet Mondrian, for example, explored a synesthetic relationship between the visual and the audible has captured the imagination of the great artists, musicians, architects, and philosophers throughout the history of culture. My thesis exploration attempts to continue this tradition in the context of an increasingly accelerating speed of life, and the new, environmentally sensitive role of the machine. Just as Jazz poeticized the hectic rhythms of the industrial age, I believe that architecture should be conceived of as a synchronizing element within the contemporary urban landscape. Through my design of an adaptive reuse transit hub, my intent was to embrace the temporal in a manner that not only reflects the spirit of the age, but also creates musical architecture. / Master of Architecture

Hunting is a very common instability exhibited by rail vehicles operating at high speeds. The hunting phenomenon is a self excited lateral oscillation that is produced by the forward speed of the vehicle and the wheel-rail interactive forces that result from the conicity of the wheel-rail contours and the friction-creep characteristics of the wheel-rail contact geometry. Hunting can lead to severe ride discomfort and eventual physical damage to wheels and rails. A comprehensive study of the lateral stability of a single wheelset, a single truck, and the complete rail vehicle has been performed. This study investigates bifurcation phenomenon and limit cycles in rail vehicle dynamics. Sensitivity of the critical hunting velocity to various primary and secondary stiffness and damping parameters has been examined. This research assumes the rail vehicle to be moving on a smooth, level, and tangential track, and all parts of the rail vehicle to be rigid. Sources of nonlinearities in the rail vehicle model are the nonlinear wheel-rail profile, the friction-creep characteristics of the wheel-rail contact geometry, and the nonlinear vehicle suspension characteristics. This work takes both single-point and two-point wheel-rail contact conditions into account. The results of the lateral stability study indicate that the critical velocity of the rail vehicle is most sensitive to the primary longitudinal stiffness. A method has been developed to eliminate hunting behavior in rail vehicles by increasing the critical velocity of hunting beyond the operational speed range. This method involves the semi-active control of the primary longitudinal stiffness using the wheelset yaw displacement. This approach is seen to considerably increase the critical hunting velocity. / Master of Science

The examination of the application and accuracy of optical sensors for the purpose of determining rail lubricity of top-of-rail friction modifier is investigated in this research. A literature review of optical sensors as they relate to detecting thin layers is presented, as well as a literature review of the significant aspect of surface roughness on optical signature. Both commercially available optical sensors and optical devices, such as independent lasers and detectors, are examined in a comprehensive parametric study to determine the most suitable configuration for a prototype with adequate third-body detection. A prototype is constructed considering parameters such as sunlight contamination, vibrations, and angle of detection. The prototype is evaluated in a series of laboratory tests with known lubricity conditions for its accuracy of measurements and susceptibility to environmental conditions, in preparation for field testing. Upon field testing the prototype, the data indicates that it is capable of providing subjective measurements that can help with determining whether a rail is highly lubricated or unlubricated, or it is moderately lubricated. It is anticipated that the device could be used to provide a rail lubricity index. The investigation of the optical response of a rail in various conditions, including top-of-rail friction modifier presence and underlying surface roughness, reveals the behavior of friction modifying material on rail/wheel interactions. It is determined that surface roughness is imperative for distinguishing between scattering due to surface condition and scattering due to third-body layers. Additionally it is revealed that friction modifying materials become entrapped within the surface roughness of the rail, effectively causing a "seasoning" effect instead of a simple third body layer. This provides some explanation on the inadequacy of determining lubricity conditions using contacting methods since they cannot detect the entrapped material that are revealed only when the top of rail undergoes a micro deformation due to a passing wheel. Furthermore, the fluorescent signature of flange grease can be utilized to detect any flange grease contamination on top of rail. The results of the study indicate that it is possible to have practical optical sensors for top-of-rail third body layer detection and any contamination that may exist, initially through spot checking the rail and eventually through in-motion surveying. / Master of Science / Top-of-rail friction modifiers are used in the railway industry for a variety of reasons, including, but not limited to, reduction in wear and fuel savings; although their use has been widely accepted, methods of detection of such materials have not been adequately developed. Presently, methods of measurement of physical aspects of a rail are used in order to deduce the presence or lack of friction modifier on top-of-rail. However, no direct method of measurement exists in the published literature today. This study examines the use of optical sensors for the purpose of determining rail lubricity conditions. The literature is reviewed in this study for all applicable topics pertaining to the optical detection of top-of-rail friction modifier, including the optical theory used and the importance of surface roughness on an optical signature. Different characteristics of optical sensors are examined and a configuration is determined for the construction of a prototype device. This device utilizes laser reflective detectors and a fluorescence sensor in order to distinguish friction modifier presence or other third-body layers. This prototype was tested and evaluated in a series of laboratory tests with known lubricity conditions in preparation for field testing. Additionally, metrics were developed using optical theory in order to quantify the differences between different lubricity conditions. It was seen that this prototype was able to determine the presence of friction modifier by its laser reflective properties, and the presence of flange grease contamination through its fluorescence signature. Field testing with this prototype confirmed the prototype’s ability to distinguish adequate lubricity conditions using these metrics. It is anticipated that the device could be used to provide a rail lubricity index that is able to aid railway professionals in maintenance practices regarding rail lubricity.