The content of this diploma thesis is to verify of possibilities for remediation spoil heap toxicity in Sokolov area, by the help of creating biological crusts. The main question of this work is the possibility of using algae to create biological crust on toxical substrates, which could improve the properties of substrates and contribute to the acceleration of succession. The correctness of this theory was tested using two tests on toxic soils in spoil heaps near Sokolov. In the first test (laboratory test) have been chosen two of the soils and the higher plants, in most cases, even did not germinate. That is why we decided to verify the second option to create biological crust in these phytotoxic soils. Therefore we applied selected kinds of algae in the field, some areas were liming, and the field has been monitoring and sampling during next three years. The results show that the application of dolomitic limestone does not affect progress of biological crusts. The result of the fluorescent microscopy clearly shows, that Klebsormidium algae was the only one of the tested algae, which survived and progressed compact visible crusts.

Despite the fact that on average less children are being born and calming messages that the population issue has basically solved itself, the world population is continuously growing. Around mid century it is estimated that approximately 70 per cent of the world’s population will be living in urban environments. This translates to an absolute increase of roughly 3.6 billion urban citizen today, to nearly 8 billion urban citizen by mid century. This unprecedented growth is going to have major impact on today’s urban societies and administrative boundaries. Especially coastal cities will feel an increased pressure while the urbanization takes another upsurge. The geographical limitations and scarcity of land in these coastal areas pushes the extension of administrative city boundaries sea inward, making land reclamation a popular tool for these governments. Nevertheless, this expected growth and the increased popularity of land reclamation seriously endangers the remaining natural wetlands. Alternative solutions of creating artificial "human made" land by reclaiming, could be a possible direct solution for modern urbanism. As a result of the unprecedented growth, natural resources are getting rapidly depleted and sustainability is being compromised. Over the total run of history, approximately 65 per cent of the world’s wetlands have been in fractioned, polluted, destroyed, altered or lost by human activities. This master’s thesis consists out of a deep, qualitative, integrative and contextual literature review. The literature review is focused on population forecasts, urbanization and growth trends, followed by an analyses of various land reclamation cases around the world. Though, the research will include a quantitative data overview this research is a qualitative research. The collection of the quantitative data regarding urbanization and growth trends will be done by using the database of United Nations, World Bank and Gapminder. Land reclamation, as a proposed solution, sets off a certain type of trade off mechanism. Large reclamation projects on one hand serve as great boosters for the economy and urban development, while on the other hand, these projects have severe implications on natural habitat from both marine and land species. Social benefits can both be realized through economic gains by land reclamation or social benefits from natural preservation. This implies land reclamation has basically two dimensions: a socioeconomic dimension and a socio-environmental dimension. A tradeoff between these two dimensions determine whether or not a land reclamation project for a specific geographical location could be economically, socially and environmentally feasible. With proper integrated and inter related governmental land planning processes, strong environmental considerations and increased public involvement, land reclamation could be sustainably feasible.

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The present state of forestry post mining land uses has prompted concern among researchers, landowners, and the public. Surface mines reclaimed to forests under the provision of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) may not achieve site productivity levels required by the law. Anecdotal evidence suggests that many pre-law reforested mined sites are growing productive forests. The purpose of this study was to characterize these forests and the mine soils in which they are growing, and use them to benchmark forest development on mined land. Using 14 mined and 8 non-mined sites in the midwestern and eastern coalfields research to address the following objectives was undertaken: (i) characterize the development, composition, and diversity of woody species on pre-SMCRA, forested surface mined land; (ii) estimate forest and site productivity on surface mined land and determine the soil and site properties most influencing forest growth; (iii) estimate projected rotation-age timber product value; (iv) quantify current carbon sequestration pools associated with the developing woody plant biomass, the forest floor, and developing soil medium; (v) compare the diversity, forest and site productivity, commercial value, and carbon capture of reclaimed mined sites to that of regional non-mined forest systems. Species richness between non-mined and mined sites was about the same within each region with 14 to 15 tree species in the canopy. Canopy richness of eastern mined sites was less than that on midwestern mined sites (12 species compared to 17 species, respectively). Species richness of the understory and woody ground layer were similar between sites planted to pines versus hardwoods. White pine (Pinus strobus) monocultures, planted on many sites in the eastern region, caused species unevenness throughout all forest strata. Midwestern mined sites and eastern sites planted to hardwoods closely approximated non-mined sites in commercial species composition. Planted species represented the majority of canopy layer dominance and abundance (82% relative dominance and 56% relative abundance). Site productivity between non-mined sites and 12 of the 14 mined sites was similar. Regression analysis identified the five most influential soil properties affecting site quality, which included soil profile base saturation, total coarse fragments, total available water, C horizon total porosity, and soil profile electrical conductivity. These five properties explained 52 % of the variation in tree growth. Forest productivity of these mined sites was equal to or greater than that of non-mined forests, ranging between 3.3 m3ha-1yr-1 and 12.1 m3ha-1yr-1. Management activities such as planting pine and valuable hardwood species increased the stumpage value of forests on reclaimed mine sites. Rotation-age stumpage values on mined study sites ranged between $3,064 ha-1 and $19,528 ha-1 and were commonly greater than stumpage values on non-mined reference sites. After 20 to 55 years, total site carbon levels on mined study sites averaged 217 Mg ha-1, while total carbon amounts on natural sites averaged 285 Mg ha-1. The amounts of carbon captured within the plant biomass and litter layer were the same on mined and natural sites. However, the soil carbon content of mined sites averaged 39 % lower than natural soils. The amount of carbon captured across mined sites was largely a function of forest stand age. Pre-SMCRA forests growing on mined sites with productivity levels similar to non-mined sites are capable of developing forest attributes comparable to or greater than those found on non-mined land within a period of 60 years, the length of a commercial hardwood rotation. These mature forests can serve as benchmarks for forest development on mined lands being reclaimed under current state and federal regulations. / Master of Science

The aim of the thesis was to analyze soil microbial communities of three ecologically different locations, about 25 years old, forestry reclaimed dumps in the Republic of Poland, namely dumps of brown coal mine Bełchatów and sand mines Piaseczno and Szczakowa. I evaluated the degree of dependence of structure and composition of these communities on various substrate grain sizes and the influence of the dominant tree species. These were stands of birch (Betula pendula), pine (Pinus silvestris), oak (Quercus robur) and alder (Alnus glutinosa). Analysis of soil microbial communities was made by evaluating specific phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) of microorganisms. It is the most appropriate way to implement the relatively rapid analysis of large numbers of samples, since PLFA are easily extractable and act as biomarkers indicating the presence of a number of different microorganisms (fungi, G- and G + bacteria, Actinobacteria, etc.) and thus allowing a qualitative and quantitative assessment of whole microbial communities. PLFA analysis enables to detect a total concentration of PLFA only in living soil microbial biomass. I analyzed 66 soil samples, 33 from an Oe layer and 33 from an A layer, every in three replications, i.e. three replications were collected at each location below each tree...

This research is based upon fieldwork carried out in 2005 and 2006 among Truku people, a Taiwanese indigenous group living in eastern Taiwan. It examines the transformation of the relationship between women and land, and explores meanings related to women’s ownership of land since the government introduced the privatisation of land ownership and cash cropping into Truku society in the 1960s. However, the imposition of these programmes of land reform and capitalisation has generated various types of conflict over land in Truku society. Since the 1960s, Truku people have suffered from loss of lands, arising from various governmental policies on economic development. Hence, many land reclamation movements have arisen, organised by Truku people in order to reclaim their land rights. Furthermore, the transformation of property relations has generated many conflicts over land and inheritance between different households and has created tensions between women and men in terms of land ownership in contemporary society. Most importantly, I reflect on the prevalent idea that women’s right to own land is not sanctioned by ‘traditional’ Truku culture, an argument which, I argue, is problematic, because the idea does not (neatly) fit into actual Truku practices of property transaction. Truku people strategically make use of this narrative of ‘tradition’ in order to strengthen their own tactical position in land disputes which arise between different households. Furthermore, I am critical of the emphasis placed on masculine or male Truku culture in this narrative, which is constructed by Truku activists in land reclamation movements in contemporary Truku society. Through investigation of the processes by which women obtain land in Truku society, I argue that women’s ownership of land cannot simply be regarded as a consequence of the implications of privatisation, but is also a result of kinship practices and their work in cultivating land and maintaining the economic well-being of the household in contemporary society. This research attempts to contribute to anthropological perspectives on property relations, economic anthropology, gender studies, kinship studies and studies of indigenous movements in Taiwan.

南海，一片充滿希望與危機的海域，冷戰過後南海各國爭相競取其中的各式資源，並將之列為國家利益，在各國聲討權利同時，自認為遭受侵權的一方大動作的發起維權行動，這當中以中國大陸與菲律賓在南海的紛爭最受國際關注。 中國大陸採取填海造島工程，片面改變島礁地貌，使其轉變成極具戰略價值的軍與民共用之島嶼；菲律賓則是將南海爭權案件交由國際仲裁判決，意圖讓南海問題放大成為國際關注的焦點議題，藉由國際輿論聲討自稱擁有的南海主權。 目前中國大陸在南海的造島規模已經足以改變當前該區域平衡發展，藉由人工造島將島礁改變成對自己有利的戰略要點，進而向前部署潛艦、戰機等的軍事武器，甚至可成為投射兵力的一個跳板，這樣變動足以動盪南海區域穩定，這當然引發各方的關注，且各國群起反對相關造島工程的進行，其中以美國採取的軍艦航行南海或是戰機巡弋南海屬較為積極的行動派國家。 2016年7月12日南海仲裁判決出爐，但就南海現況來看，中國大陸並沒有因為相關判決而減緩或停止造島工程，而後續隨著中國大陸的造島戰略發展，相關聲索國家彼此間的軍事、外交關係的改變都會間接影響南海局勢的變化。 / South China Sea, a region is full of crisis and hope. After Cold War, the claimant countries in the South China Sea were eager for the resources and regarded those resources as their country interests. Some countries thought they were losing right on the claimed territorial seas and tried to take actions to maintain it. Therefore, the South China Sea becomes a disputed water territory and that let the China and Philippines disputes issue of the South China Sea to draw attentions of the international community. China constructed several islands in the South China Sea and transformed as highly strategic values islands for military and civilian use. The Philippines submitted its Memorial to the Arbitral Tribunal and tried to make the disputes issue of the South China Sea become an international issue and let the issue to be widely discussed in the international community. China has influenced the region’s balance by constructing islands in the South China Sea and transformed those islands to be forward strategy points. Meanwhile China also can install weapons such as submarines, fighter jets on the islands and utilize them as the power projection platforms which can change the region’s balance in the South China Sea. As we know, China’s Islands reclamation has drawn the attention of the international community and all the countries started to against it. Especially, the United States, who is an active country, has already dispatched warships and military planes in the immediate proximity of the disputed islands. Even though, after the Permanent Court of Arbitration had published the arbitration award by the tribunal on 12 July 2016, China still continues its land reclamation. Base on the China’s strategy development in islands construction, the situation of the South China Sea will be influenced by the changing relationship among those claimant countries in military and diplomat way.

Reciprocal plantings of populations of broomsedge, taken from an abandoned strip mine and from an abandoned farm plot in south central Kentucky, on strip mine spoil and abandoned field soil resulted in patterns of populations differentiation. Clonal plantings of populations from strip mine habitats and old field development appeared equal in height and biomass when grown on old field soils in both field trials and growth chamber studies. Populations when planted in strip mine soils in field trials and controlled growth experiments. Later flowering in strip mine populations may be a key to survival strategy in the harsh microclimates of spoil banks. Andropogon virginicus L. may prove to be a significant and economically sound species in reclamation programs.

A mineração é uma das atividades antrópicas mais impactantes aos recursos naturais, e que pode afetar profundamente a resiliência dos ecossistemas em função do elevado nível de degradação do solo e da paisagem. Diante disso, muitas áreas mineradas não são efetivamente recuperadas a ponto de restabelecer parte relevante da biodiversidade e dos serviços ambientais perdidos com a mineração. No entanto, novos métodos de restauração ecológica têm gerados resultados promissores mesmo em situações de degradação tão intensa como as de mineração, o que permitiria rever os níveis mínimos de qualidade ambiental exigidos de áreas que foram mineradas e que precisam passar por um processo de recuperação como forma de mitigação dos impactos causados e cumprimento de demandas legais de compensação ambiental. Assim, o objetivo geral desse estudo é avaliar a recuperação física, química e microbiológica do solo em áreas de mineração de bauxita em processo de recuperação ambiental. Avaliamos inicialmente a restauração do solo em minas de bauxita localizadas em Poços de Caldas-MG, tendo como objetivo contextualizar a melhoria do solo através de vários parâmetros químicos, físicos e microbiológicos em áreas recém-mineradas, em restauração de diferentes idades e remanescentes de floresta nativa. Encontramos que a restauração florestal foi eficiente em desencadear um processo de recuperação do solo, que resultou no restabelecimento, em poucos anos, de características químicas, físicas e microbiológicas já bem similares às do ecossistema de referência. Em seguida, avaliamos a recuperação dos teores de fósforo no solo pela restauração de florestas tropicais em minas de bauxita, e obtivemos como principais resultados a recuperação de importantes frações de P no solo, parte relevante da produção de serapilheira e da estrutura da floresta ao longo da trajetória sucessional nas jovens áreas restauradas após a mineração. A restauração ecológica mostrou-se capaz de restaurar rapidamente importantes atributos do solo, evidenciando o potencial da abordagem de restauração ecológica para mitigar os impactos ambientais negativos da mineração. Dessa maneira, destaca-se que políticas públicas voltadas para a mitigação de danos ambientais causados pela mineração podem exigir níveis mais elevados de qualidade ambiental em áreas de recuperação de minas, protegendo os interesses coletivos envolvidos na mediação de interesses entre empresas e sociedade. / Mining is one of the human activities with the highest impact in natural resources. It can profoundly affect the resilience of ecosystems due to the high level of soil degradation and landscape alteration. Thus, many mined areas are not effectively recovered enough to restore important part of biodiversity and ecosystem services lost. However, new ecological restoration methods showed promising results even in such intense degradation situations such as mining. Thus, it is needed to review the minimum levels of environmental quality required for areas that have been mined and need to recovered to mitigate the impacts and compliance with legal demands of environmental compensation. Thus, the general objective of this study is to evaluate the physical, chemical and microbiological soil in bauxite mining areas under ecological restoration. We initially evaluated soil restoration in bauxite mines located in the county of \"Poços de Caldas\", aiming to contextualize soil improvement through various chemical, physical and microbiological parameters in newly mined areas, restoration of different ages and remaining native forest. We found that forest restoration was effective in triggering a soil recovery process, which resulted in the recuperation, in a few years, of the chemical, physical and microbiological characteristics already very similar values to the references. We then evaluated the recovery of soil phosphorus for the restoration of tropical forests in bauxite mines, and obtained as main results the recovery of important fractions of soil P, litter production and forest structure along the successional trajectory in young restored areas after mining. Ecological restoration proved to be able to quickly restore important soil properties, showing the potential of ecological restoration approach to mitigate the negative environmental impacts of mining. Thus, it is emphasized that public policies to mitigate environmental damage caused by mining may require higher levels of environmental quality in mining recovery areas, protecting the collective interests involved in the mediation of interests between business and society.