Simple shifts within the syntactic structure of a sentence can have significant effects on the cognitive processes involved in language comprehension (Deckert, 2015; Ellis, 2002; Ferreira, 2003). Modifier position is one such syntactic element that has shown the importance of structure as demonstrated by Karimi et al. (2019). Post-modified words (e.g., a “peasant who was highly educated”) are encoded more robustly and are retrieved more easily than pre-modified words (e.g., a “highly educated peasant”). We explored the potential influence of modifier position on statement believability, namely, how much people believe a statement they have not heard before in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2 we examined how linear modification affects the perceptual qualities being transferred to the target noun phrase. Our results from both experiments illustrate a strong effect of Likelihood (familiarity) and provide interesting insight into the modification effect, and how modifiers may enhance target noun phrases.

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This dissertation presents a cross-linguistic investigation of how nonnative sounds are perceived by second language (L2) learners in terms of their first language (L1) categories for an understudies language pair---Japanese and Mandarin Chinese. Category mapping experiment empirically measured the perceived phonetic distances between Chinese sounds and their most resembling Japanese categories, which generated testable predictions on discriminability of Chinese sound contrasts according to Perception Assimilation Model (PAM). Category discrimination experiment obtained data concerning L2 learners' actual performance on discrimination Chinese sounds. The discrepancy between PAM's predictions and actual performances revealed that PAM cannot be applied to L2 perceptual learning. It was suggested that the discriminability of L2 sound contrasts was not only determined by perceived phonetic distances but probably involved other factors, such as the distinctiveness of certain phonetic features, e.g. aspiration and retroflexion. The training experiment assessed the improvement of L2 learners' performance in identifying Chinese sound contrasts with exposure to high variability stimuli and feedback. The results not only proved the effectiveness of training in shaping L2 learners' perception but showed that the training effects were generalizable to new tokens spoken by unfamiliar talkers. In addition to perception, the production of Chinese sounds by Japanese learners was also examined from the phonetic perspective in terms of perceived foreign accentedness. Regression of L2 learners' and native speakers foreign accentedness ratings against acoustic measurements of their speech production revealed that although both segmental and suprasegmental variables contributed to the perception of foreign accent, suprasegmental variables such as total and intonation patterns were the most influential factor in predicting perceived foreign accent. To conclude, PAM failed to accurately predict learning difficulties of nonnative sounds faced by L2 learners solely based on perceived phonetic distances. As Speech Learning Model (SLM) hypothesizes, production was found to be driven by perception, since equivalence classification of L2 sounds to L1 categories prevented the establishment of a new phonological category, thus further resulted in divergence in L2 production. Although production was hypothesized to eventually resemble perception, asynchrony between production and perception was observed due to different mechanisms involved.

Darbe atlikta teorinė kalbos suvokimo raidos ir dėsningumų analizė. Iškelta hipotezė, kad daugelyje šalių naudojama Reynell metodika didžia dalimi tinka lietuvių vaikų kalbos suvokimui tirti. Reynell testo suvokimo skale buvo vertinamas kalbos suvokimas, kurio tikslas - įvertinti Reynell testo suvokimo skalės taikymo galimybes (patikimumą ir validumą), tiriant 1,9 – 7 metų amžiaus vaikus. Atlikta statistinė gautų rezultatų analizė. Tyrime dalyvavo šimtas nuo 1,9 – 7 metų vaikai. Empirinėje dalyje nagrinėjama, kaip tinkamai ir patikimai Reynell testo suvokimo skale vertinamas kalbos suvokimas. Aiškinamasi, kokie suvokimo dėsningumai ir ypatumai išryškėja tiriant šiuo testu sutrikusios kalbos raidos vaikus. Padarytos kai kurios svarbiausios empirinio tyrimo išvados. Nustatyta, kad Reynell testo suvokimo skalė yra validi ir patikima metodika lietuvių vaikų kalbos suvokimui tirti. Išryškėjo metodikos privalumai: testo priemonės žinomos ir patrauklios daugumai vaikų; nesudėtingas testo atlikimas ir interpretacija; išsamus rezultatų žymėjimas palengvina specialistų darb�� ir užtikrina jo tęstinumą; atskirai skaičiuojami subskalių rezultatai leidžia manyti, kad taip bus nustatytos silpnesnės vaiko raidos sritys. Duomenų analizė leidžia teigti, kad Reynell testo suvokimo skalė gali padėti atrinkti vaikus, kurių kalbos raida yra sutrikusi. Atidžiai analizuojant rezultatus galima nustatyti silpniausias kalbos suvokimo sritis. / There was done a theoretic analysis of language perception development and its consistent patterns in this research work. It was hypothesized that Reynell methodology which is used in many countries is almost suitable for language perception analyses of the Lithuanians’ children. The perception scale of Reynell test was used to evaluate language perception. The aim was to asses a reliability of the perception scale of Reynell test while examining 1,9 – 7 years old children. It was done statistical analysis of the results. One hundred 1,9 – 7 years old children were examined in this research work. It was scrutinized if Reynell test is reliable and suitable for language perception analysis in the Empirical part of the work. It was also researched peculiarities and regularities of the perception specific to children who have some language perception disorders. The most important conclusions of the research work are: The hypothesy that the perception scale of Reynell test is suitable to examine language perception of children in Lithuania proved out. Advantages of the methodology are: means of the test are familiar and attractive to many children; fulfillment and interpretation of the test are simple; blanket notation of results facilitates a work of specialists and secures its continuing; weak grounds of children development will be noticed because of counting results of different scales separately We could state that the scale of Reynell test can help to select children... [to full text]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of three different levels of skill training in musical timbre discrimination on alphabet sound discrimination in pre-kindergarten and kindergarten children. The findings of prior investigations indicated similarities between aural music and language perception. Psychoacoustic and neurological findings have reported the discrimination of alphabet quality and musical timbre to be similar perceptual functions and have provided, through imaging technology, physical evidence of music learning simultaneously stimulating non-musical areas of the brain. This investigator hypothesized that timbre discrimination, the process of differentiating the characteristic quality of one complex sound from another of identical pitch and loudness, may have been a common factor between music and alphabet sound discrimination. Existing studies had not explored this relationship or the effects of directly teaching for transfer on learning generalization between skills used for the discrimination of musical timbre and alphabet sounds. Variables identified as similar from the literature were the discrimination of same- different musical and alphabet sounds, visual recognition of musical and alphabet pictures as sound sources, and association of alphabet and musical sounds with matching symbols. A randomized pre-post test design with intermittent measures was used to implement the study. There were 5 instructional groups. Groups 1, 2,and 3 received one, two and three levels of skill instruction respectively. Groups 4 received three levels of skill training with instruction for transfer; Group 5 traditional timbre instruction. Students were measured at the 5th (Level 1), 10th (Level 2), 14th (Level 3), and 18th (delayed re-test), weeks of instruction. Results revealed timbre discrimination instruction had a significant impact on alphabet sound-symbol discrimination achievement in pre-kindergarten and kindergarten children. Different levels of timbre instruction had different degrees of effectiveness on alphabet sound discrimination. Students who received three levels of timbre discrimination instruction and were taught to transfer skill similarities from music timbre discrimination to alphabet sound discrimination, were significantly more proficient in alphabet sound symbol discrimination than those who had not received instruction Posttest comparisons indicated skill relationships were strengthened by instruction for transfer. Transfer strategies had a significant impact on the retention of newly learned skills over time.

Le but de cette thèse a été d'explorer certains des mécanismes relatifs à la perception de la prosodie linguistique. Cet intérêt provient du fait que la prosodie, qui est portée dans le signal acoustique par les indices d'intensité, durée et pitch, pourrait guider les nourrissons dans l'apprentissage des mots et de leur ordre dans les phrases. Nous avons donc étudié un mécanisme qui pourrait sous-tendre ces capacités prosodiques précoces : la loi iambo-trochaïque (iambic-trochaic law : ITL). L'ITL (Woodrow, 1909; Hayes, 1995; Nespor et al., 2008) est un des principes d'organisation de la perception auditive qui a été proposé comme ayant un rôle important non seulement dans la perception chez l'adulte, mais aussi pendant l'acquisition du langage chez le nourrisson. L'ITL postule une préférence générale pour le regroupement des éléments sonores (syllabes, notes musicales...) en paires, en fonction des variations d'intensité, de tonalité (pitch) ou de durée de ces éléments : les sons forts ou aigus marquent le début de groupes de pattern trochaïque (fort-faible ou aigu-grave), alors que les sons longs marquent la fin de groupes de pattern iambique (court-long). Toutefois, les langues diffèrent dans leur façon d'utiliser ces indices acoustiques pour marquer la proéminence prosodique dans les mots et dans les syntagmes. Par exemple, le français ne possède pas d'accent lexical mais un accent au niveau du syntagme où la dernière syllabe est allongée, ce qui crée un contraste court-long (pattern iambique basé sur la durée). A l'inverse, en anglais ou en allemand, l'accent lexical est en général sur la première syllabe, qui est plus forte et/ou plus aigüe, ce qui induit un pattern trochaïque basé sur l'intensité ou le pitch. L'environnement linguistique pourrait donc interagir avec l'ITL. Cette thèse s'articule en deux axes. D'une part, dans une tâche de segmentation / reconnaissance de paires de syllabes, nos données montrent que des sensibilités à l'ITL sont présentes chez l'adulte (Exp. 1) et le nourrisson de 7,5 mois (Exp. 2), français et allemands. De faibles différences cross-linguistiques entre les deux groupes sont retrouvées pour le groupement basé sur l'intensité. D'autre part, à l'aide de la NIRS (Near InfraRed Spectroscopy), nous avons mesuré les réponses d'activité cérébrale chez des nouveau-nés et mis en évidence que des sensibilités à l'ITL sont présentes à la naissance et déjà influencées par la langue entendue in utero (Exp. 3-6). Pour finir, nous avons exploré de quelle manière l'environnement linguistique influence les compétences de discrimination de patterns rythmiques d'accentuation des mots chez des nourrissons de 10 mois (Exp. 7). Nos résultats révèlent que des nourrissons bilingues apprenant le français et une langue avec un accent lexical variable sont capables de discriminer des patterns d'accentuation contrairement aux monolingues français. Pris ensemble, nos résultats contribuent à la compréhension de l'origine développementale de l'ITL, de sa modulation par l'environnement linguistique et du développement langue-spécifique du traitement et des préférences rythmiques. / The goal of this doctoral dissertation was to explore the mechanisms underlying linguistic prosodic perception. Prosody is carried in the speech signal by a number of acoustic cues, including duration, intensity and pitch. Importantly for language acquisition, prosody could help infants learn words and word order in their native language. Therefore, we studied a mechanism that could support these early prosodic abilities: the iambic/trochaic law (ITL). The ITL (Woodrow, 1909; Hayes, 1995; Nespor et al., 2008) is a mechanism that organizes auditory perception and was proposed to have an important role not only in adult speech perception but also in language acquisition in infancy. The ITL states that sounds (e.g., syllables, musical notes, etc.) contrasting in intensity/pitch form pairs with initial prominence, i.e., a trochaic pattern (strong-weak or high-low), and those contrasting in duration form pairs with final prominence, i.e., an iambic pattern (short-long). However, languages differ in how these acoustic cues mark prosodic prominence both at the level of words and of phonological phrases. For example, French has no lexical stress but has phrase-final stress, the last syllable of the phrase being lengthened, creating a short-long pattern (duration-based iambic pattern). Conversely, in English or in German, lexical stress is usually on the first syllable, which has higher intensity and/or pitch (intensity- or pitch-based trochaic pattern). Listeners' language background is therefore likely to interact with the ITL bias. This thesis is divided into two main parts. First, in a segmentation / syllable pair recognition task, we found that sensitivity to the ITL was present in French and German adults (Exp. 1) and 7.5-month-old infants (Exp. 2). We found weak cross-linguistic differences between the two language groups for the intensity grouping in adults and infants. Secondly, using NIRS (Near InfraRed Spectroscopy), we measured cortical responses in newborns and demonstrated that sensitivity to the ITL was present at birth and were already influenced by the language the infants heard in utero (Exp. 3-6). Finally, we observed how language background influences the ability to discriminate lexical stress patterns in 10-month-olds (Exp. 7). Our findings show that bilingual infants simultaneously learning French and a language with variable lexical stress were able to discriminate stress patterns whereas monolingual French infants could not. Taken together, our results contribute to a better understanding of the developmental origin of the ITL, its modulation by linguistic experience, and language-specific processing and rhythmic preferences.

Le but de cette thèse a été d'explorer certains des mécanismes relatifs à la perception de la prosodie linguistique. Cet intérêt provient du fait que la prosodie, qui est portée dans le signal acoustique par les indices d'intensité, durée et pitch, pourrait guider les nourrissons dans l'apprentissage des mots et de leur ordre dans les phrases. Nous avons donc étudié un mécanisme qui pourrait sous-tendre ces capacités prosodiques précoces : la loi iambo-trochaïque (iambic-trochaic law : ITL). L'ITL (Woodrow, 1909; Hayes, 1995; Nespor et al., 2008) est un des principes d'organisation de la perception auditive qui a été proposé comme ayant un rôle important non seulement dans la perception chez l'adulte, mais aussi pendant l'acquisition du langage chez le nourrisson. L'ITL postule une préférence générale pour le regroupement des éléments sonores (syllabes, notes musicales...) en paires, en fonction des variations d'intensité, de tonalité (pitch) ou de durée de ces éléments : les sons forts ou aigus marquent le début de groupes de pattern trochaïque (fort-faible ou aigu-grave), alors que les sons longs marquent la fin de groupes de pattern iambique (court-long). Toutefois, les langues diffèrent dans leur façon d'utiliser ces indices acoustiques pour marquer la proéminence prosodique dans les mots et dans les syntagmes. Par exemple, le français ne possède pas d'accent lexical mais un accent au niveau du syntagme où la dernière syllabe est allongée, ce qui crée un contraste court-long (pattern iambique basé sur la durée). A l'inverse, en anglais ou en allemand, l'accent lexical est en général sur la première syllabe, qui est plus forte et/ou plus aigüe, ce qui induit un pattern trochaïque basé sur l'intensité ou le pitch. L'environnement linguistique pourrait donc interagir avec l'ITL. Cette thèse s'articule en deux axes. D'une part, dans une tâche de segmentation / reconnaissance de paires de syllabes, nos données montrent que des sensibilités à l'ITL sont présentes chez l'adulte (Exp. 1) et le nourrisson de 7,5 mois (Exp. 2), français et allemands. De faibles différences cross-linguistiques entre les deux groupes sont retrouvées pour le groupement basé sur l'intensité. D'autre part, à l'aide de la NIRS (Near InfraRed Spectroscopy), nous avons mesuré les réponses d'activité cérébrale chez des nouveau-nés et mis en évidence que des sensibilités à l'ITL sont présentes à la naissance et déjà influencées par la langue entendue in utero (Exp. 3-6). Pour finir, nous avons exploré de quelle manière l'environnement linguistique influence les compétences de discrimination de patterns rythmiques d'accentuation des mots chez des nourrissons de 10 mois (Exp. 7). Nos résultats révèlent que des nourrissons bilingues apprenant le français et une langue avec un accent lexical variable sont capables de discriminer des patterns d'accentuation contrairement aux monolingues français. Pris ensemble, nos résultats contribuent à la compréhension de l'origine développementale de l'ITL, de sa modulation par l'environnement linguistique et du développement langue-spécifique du traitement et des préférences rythmiques. / The goal of this doctoral dissertation was to explore the mechanisms underlying linguistic prosodic perception. Prosody is carried in the speech signal by a number of acoustic cues, including duration, intensity and pitch. Importantly for language acquisition, prosody could help infants learn words and word order in their native language. Therefore, we studied a mechanism that could support these early prosodic abilities: the iambic/trochaic law (ITL). The ITL (Woodrow, 1909; Hayes, 1995; Nespor et al., 2008) is a mechanism that organizes auditory perception and was proposed to have an important role not only in adult speech perception but also in language acquisition in infancy. The ITL states that sounds (e.g., syllables, musical notes, etc.) contrasting in intensity/pitch form pairs with initial prominence, i.e., a trochaic pattern (strong-weak or high-low), and those contrasting in duration form pairs with final prominence, i.e., an iambic pattern (short-long). However, languages differ in how these acoustic cues mark prosodic prominence both at the level of words and of phonological phrases. For example, French has no lexical stress but has phrase-final stress, the last syllable of the phrase being lengthened, creating a short-long pattern (duration-based iambic pattern). Conversely, in English or in German, lexical stress is usually on the first syllable, which has higher intensity and/or pitch (intensity- or pitch-based trochaic pattern). Listeners' language background is therefore likely to interact with the ITL bias. This thesis is divided into two main parts. First, in a segmentation / syllable pair recognition task, we found that sensitivity to the ITL was present in French and German adults (Exp. 1) and 7.5-month-old infants (Exp. 2). We found weak cross-linguistic differences between the two language groups for the intensity grouping in adults and infants. Secondly, using NIRS (Near InfraRed Spectroscopy), we measured cortical responses in newborns and demonstrated that sensitivity to the ITL was present at birth and were already influenced by the language the infants heard in utero (Exp. 3-6). Finally, we observed how language background influences the ability to discriminate lexical stress patterns in 10-month-olds (Exp. 7). Our findings show that bilingual infants simultaneously learning French and a language with variable lexical stress were able to discriminate stress patterns whereas monolingual French infants could not. Taken together, our results contribute to a better understanding of the developmental origin of the ITL, its modulation by linguistic experience, and language-specific processing and rhythmic preferences.

Le but de cette thèse a été d'explorer certains des mécanismes relatifs à la perception de la prosodie linguistique. Cet intérêt provient du fait que la prosodie, qui est portée dans le signal acoustique par les indices d'intensité, durée et pitch, pourrait guider les nourrissons dans l'apprentissage des mots et de leur ordre dans les phrases. Nous avons donc étudié un mécanisme qui pourrait sous-tendre ces capacités prosodiques précoces : la loi iambo-trochaïque (iambic-trochaic law : ITL). L'ITL (Woodrow, 1909; Hayes, 1995; Nespor et al., 2008) est un des principes d'organisation de la perception auditive qui a été proposé comme ayant un rôle important non seulement dans la perception chez l'adulte, mais aussi pendant l'acquisition du langage chez le nourrisson. L'ITL postule une préférence générale pour le regroupement des éléments sonores (syllabes, notes musicales...) en paires, en fonction des variations d'intensité, de tonalité (pitch) ou de durée de ces éléments : les sons forts ou aigus marquent le début de groupes de pattern trochaïque (fort-faible ou aigu-grave), alors que les sons longs marquent la fin de groupes de pattern iambique (court-long). Toutefois, les langues diffèrent dans leur façon d'utiliser ces indices acoustiques pour marquer la proéminence prosodique dans les mots et dans les syntagmes. Par exemple, le français ne possède pas d'accent lexical mais un accent au niveau du syntagme où la dernière syllabe est allongée, ce qui crée un contraste court-long (pattern iambique basé sur la durée). A l'inverse, en anglais ou en allemand, l'accent lexical est en général sur la première syllabe, qui est plus forte et/ou plus aigüe, ce qui induit un pattern trochaïque basé sur l'intensité ou le pitch. L'environnement linguistique pourrait donc interagir avec l'ITL. Cette thèse s'articule en deux axes. D'une part, dans une tâche de segmentation / reconnaissance de paires de syllabes, nos données montrent que des sensibilités à l'ITL sont présentes chez l'adulte (Exp. 1) et le nourrisson de 7,5 mois (Exp. 2), français et allemands. De faibles différences cross-linguistiques entre les deux groupes sont retrouvées pour le groupement basé sur l'intensité. D'autre part, à l'aide de la NIRS (Near InfraRed Spectroscopy), nous avons mesuré les réponses d'activité cérébrale chez des nouveau-nés et mis en évidence que des sensibilités à l'ITL sont présentes à la naissance et déjà influencées par la langue entendue in utero (Exp. 3-6). Pour finir, nous avons exploré de quelle manière l'environnement linguistique influence les compétences de discrimination de patterns rythmiques d'accentuation des mots chez des nourrissons de 10 mois (Exp. 7). Nos résultats révèlent que des nourrissons bilingues apprenant le français et une langue avec un accent lexical variable sont capables de discriminer des patterns d'accentuation contrairement aux monolingues français. Pris ensemble, nos résultats contribuent à la compréhension de l'origine développementale de l'ITL, de sa modulation par l'environnement linguistique et du développement langue-spécifique du traitement et des préférences rythmiques. / The goal of this doctoral dissertation was to explore the mechanisms underlying linguistic prosodic perception. Prosody is carried in the speech signal by a number of acoustic cues, including duration, intensity and pitch. Importantly for language acquisition, prosody could help infants learn words and word order in their native language. Therefore, we studied a mechanism that could support these early prosodic abilities: the iambic/trochaic law (ITL). The ITL (Woodrow, 1909; Hayes, 1995; Nespor et al., 2008) is a mechanism that organizes auditory perception and was proposed to have an important role not only in adult speech perception but also in language acquisition in infancy. The ITL states that sounds (e.g., syllables, musical notes, etc.) contrasting in intensity/pitch form pairs with initial prominence, i.e., a trochaic pattern (strong-weak or high-low), and those contrasting in duration form pairs with final prominence, i.e., an iambic pattern (short-long). However, languages differ in how these acoustic cues mark prosodic prominence both at the level of words and of phonological phrases. For example, French has no lexical stress but has phrase-final stress, the last syllable of the phrase being lengthened, creating a short-long pattern (duration-based iambic pattern). Conversely, in English or in German, lexical stress is usually on the first syllable, which has higher intensity and/or pitch (intensity- or pitch-based trochaic pattern). Listeners' language background is therefore likely to interact with the ITL bias. This thesis is divided into two main parts. First, in a segmentation / syllable pair recognition task, we found that sensitivity to the ITL was present in French and German adults (Exp. 1) and 7.5-month-old infants (Exp. 2). We found weak cross-linguistic differences between the two language groups for the intensity grouping in adults and infants. Secondly, using NIRS (Near InfraRed Spectroscopy), we measured cortical responses in newborns and demonstrated that sensitivity to the ITL was present at birth and were already influenced by the language the infants heard in utero (Exp. 3-6). Finally, we observed how language background influences the ability to discriminate lexical stress patterns in 10-month-olds (Exp. 7). Our findings show that bilingual infants simultaneously learning French and a language with variable lexical stress were able to discriminate stress patterns whereas monolingual French infants could not. Taken together, our results contribute to a better understanding of the developmental origin of the ITL, its modulation by linguistic experience, and language-specific processing and rhythmic preferences.

This study focuses on how the cross-language perception of German vowels by native speakers of North American English differs based on various levels of classroom instruction and experience in a German-speaking country. Of special interest is whether more advanced students and those with target country experience have a different cross-language perception of German vowels from naive or less-experienced listeners. It further examines how English-speaking learners perceive German sounds that are not found in English, namely the front-rounded vowels. Study participants were students at Brigham Young University, divided into four groups: those 1) without knowledge of German; 2) in their 3rd semester of German without stay abroad; 3) in their 5th semester of German or above without stay abroad; and 4) in their 5th semester or above with at least 12 months in a German-speaking country. The subjects performed two tasks. While listening to German words, they first selected the English word with the vowel that most closely matched the German vowel heard from a list of English words on the computer screen; and secondly, they rated how much alike the German vowel sounded like the English vowel they chose. The results indicate that level of instruction does indeed affect how subjects perceive German vowels. Moreover, perception of the vowels was to some degree affected by the consonant environment. Finally, it was found that all groups rated the similarity of vowels in a similar manner regardless of experience.

This study examined the differences and similarities in how animated 3D characters were perceived by individuals from Sweden and China. The study also attempted to examine how cultural aspects influenced the participants’ perceptions. Parts of the study were conducted through collaboration with the Chinese game company, Focus Games. A literature study focusing on body language and culture was conducted, as well as a game animation analysis featuring games from both western and East Asian developers. Based on the game analysis, 6 animations were created with movement qualities inspired by each of the cultures. The study was conducted through an online questionnaire, as well as shorter semi-structured interviews. The results show that there were certain similarities and differences in how participants perceived the animations, however the reason as to how cultural aspects influenced the responses was partially unanswered due to lack of data.