This work describes advanced fabrication of custom orthopaedic implants using unconventional additive manufacturing technology - Selective Laser Melting (SLM). There was a main focus on custom knee replacement and certainly on its femoral component. The study investigated three general issues within the domain of the usage of additive manufacturing technology in medical application. First, there was an evaluation of process parameters influences of SLM fabrication method on surface and mechanical properties of titanium Ti6Al4V ELI specimens. This material was used because of its biocompatibility and its wide use within implant fabrication. Then, a proposal of the manufacturing strategy was carried out and the fabrication of customized knee femoral component prototype by SLM technology was done. The elaboration of the numerical chain prior the SLM implant fabrication, from patient's CT knee scan to final femoral replacement model, was also done. Then, a proposal of different 3-axis and 5-axis strategies of machining of the fitting femoral surface of bone prototype (3D printed from the powder) using CNC machines FV 25 CNC and TAJMAC ZPS MCV 1210 was projected and also, the 3-axis spiral machining was realised. The individual machining tool paths were generated by software Power Mill from Delcam group. Finally, these machining strategies were generated as a prior step before a machining of real patient’s bone, therefore the machining tests of cartilage and bone were done.

Selective laser melting process is an additive manufacturing technique that allows obtaining, from a 3D model, a physical model through a layer-by-layer manufacturing strategy. Several machines are commercially available, known as 3D printers. Recently, technology improvements have allowed the use of metallic materials; however, the amount of materials available is low due to the difficulty to find adequate manufacturing parameters. The thesis proposes a methodology, using an inclined plane, to set the minimum energy density to melt a continuous track, the first step of the melting process. Different process parameters from several commercials machines have been used to evaluate dimensional and mechanical properties. Replicas of traditional products have been fabricated using additive process and they have been compared. Finally, a protocol to use a selective laser melting process to reconstruct a personalized jaw prosthesis has been shown / La fusió selectiva per làser és un procés de fabricació additiva que permet obtenir, d'un disseny en 3D, un model físic de forma ràpida i a través d'una estratègia de fabricació capa a capa. Existeixen diferents màquines comercials anomenades impressores 3D. Actualment, les millores tècniques desenvolupades han permès la utilització de materials metàl·lics, no obstant, la quantitat de materials que es poden utilitzar és baix degut a la dificultat per trobar els paràmetres de fabricació més adequats. La tesis proposa una metodologia, a través d’un pla inclinat, que permet definir la densitat d’energia mínima per fondre un cordó continu, el primer pas del procés de fusió làser. Diferents paràmetres de varies màquina comercials s'han utilitzat per avaluar variables dimensionals i mecàniques. S'han comparat rèpliques fabricades mitjançant processos tradicionals i processos additius. Finalment, s'ha realitzat un protocol per a reconstruir una mandíbula personalitzada utilitzant la fusió selectiva per làser

Selective laser melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing process which enables the creation of intricate components from high performance alloys. This facilitates the design and fabrication of new cellular materials for blast and impact mitigation, where the performance is heavily influenced by geometric and material sensitivities. Design of such materials requires an understanding of the relationship between the additive manufacturing process and material properties at different length scales: from the microstructure, to geometric feature rendition, to overall dynamic performance. To date, there remain significant uncertainties about both the potential benefits and pitfalls of using additive manufacturing processes to design and optimise cellular materials for dynamic energy absorbing applications. This investigation focuses on the out-of-plane compression of stainless steel cellular materials fabricated using SLM, and makes two specific contributions. First, it demonstrates how the SLM process itself influences the characteristics of these cellular materials across a range of length scales, and in turn, how this influences the dynamic deformation. Secondly, it demonstrates how an additive manufacturing route can be used to add geometric complexity to the cell architecture, creating a versatile basis for geometry optimisation. Two design spaces are explored in this work: a conventional square honeycomb hybridised with lattice walls, and an auxetic stacked-origami geometry, manufactured and tested experimentally here for the first time. It is shown that the hybrid lattice-honeycomb geometry outperformed the benchmark metallic square honeycomb in terms of energy absorption efficiency in the intermediate impact velocity regime (approximately 100 m/s). In this regime, the collapse is dominated by dynamic buckling effects, but wave propagation effects have yet to become pronounced. By tailoring the fold angles of the stacked origami material, numerical simulations illustrated how it can be optimised for specific impact velocity regimes between 10-150 m/s. Practical design tools were then developed based on these results.

Submitted by Caroline Periotto (carol@ufscar.br) on 2016-10-10T12:55:43Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissJMS.pdf: 4383574 bytes, checksum: 04172fa81fb0f3d2e00439bbeaf3cbd4 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-10-20T19:49:46Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissJMS.pdf: 4383574 bytes, checksum: 04172fa81fb0f3d2e00439bbeaf3cbd4 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-10-20T19:49:51Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissJMS.pdf: 4383574 bytes, checksum: 04172fa81fb0f3d2e00439bbeaf3cbd4 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-10-20T19:49:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissJMS.pdf: 4383574 bytes, checksum: 04172fa81fb0f3d2e00439bbeaf3cbd4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-12-16 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / The aim of the present work was the study of the viability of a manufacturing route of parts with the Cu-based Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Cu- 11,3Al-3,2Ni-3Mn-0,5Zr through gas atomization followed by Selective Laser Melting (SLM) consolidation. The alloy was prepared from high purity elements in an induction furnace with a concentrate argon flow shield above the molten metal. The atomization was carried out using an induction furnace for melting and argon as atomizer gas. The atomized powder was sieved in 32-106 μm range particles sizes and consolidated by SLM 250 HL device settled at the Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research, Dresden, Germany. In the consolidation step the best combination of power (P in Watts) and velocity (V in mm/s) were selected through the visual aspect criteria. In the following step the hatching track percentage (S) guided by relative density criteria was included. The atomized powder and the consolidated samples were characterized by optical and electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry. The composition and the powder morphology were suitable for the SLM processing. The parameters optimization point out that the best combinations were P310v740S40 and P310v740S50, their relative density were around 97 %. The β’ “zig-zag” martensite phase, the SMA effect cause, was prevailing in the consolidated samples microstructure, still, the microstructure although was not-uniform it was relatively grain refined, pointing out the effect of Zr addition. The consolidated samples transformation temperatures were As=172-174C, Af=194-197C, Ms=156-160C, Mf=132- 138C. The results point to a strong indicative of the viability of a manufacturing route of parts with Cu-based SMA through gas atomization followed by SLM consolidation. / O objetivo da dissertação foi o estudo da viabilidade de uma rota de fabricação de peças com liga Cu-11,3Al-3,2Ni-3Mn-0,5Zr a base de cobre com Efeito de Memória de Forma (EMF) por atomização a gás da liga, seguida pela consolidação por Fusão Seletiva por Laser (FSL). A liga foi elaborada a partir de elementos de alta pureza em forno de indução com proteção de fluxo de argônio concentrado acima do banho. As atomizações foram realizadas com fusão por indução e utilizando argônio como gás de atomização. Os pós, separados na faixa granulométrica 32-106 μm foram consolidados por FSL utilizando o equipamento SLM 250 HL do Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research, Dresden, Alemanha. Para consolidação foram selecionadas as melhores combinações de potência (P em W) e velocidade (V em mm/s) do feixe de laser pelo critério de aspecto visual das trilhas simples. Na etapa seguinte foi considerada a porcentagem de sobreposição de pistas (S) avaliada pelo critério de densidade relativa. O pó atomizado e os corpos consolidados por FSL foram caracterizados por microscopia ótica e eletrônica de varredura, difração de raios-X e por calorimetria diferencial de varredura. A composição e a morfologia do pó atomizado foram adequadas para o processo de FSL. A otimização dos parâmetros de processamento indicaram que as melhores combinações foram de P310v740S40 e P310v740S50, com densidade relativa alcançada em torno de 97%. A fase martensítica β’ “zigzag”, responsável pelo EMF, foi predominante nos corpos consolidados por FSL sendo que a microestrutura, embora não uniforme, foi relativamente refinada, indicando o efeito da adição de Zr na composição da liga. As temperaturas de transformação dos corpos consolidados foram de As=172- 174C, Af=194-197C, Ms=156-160C, Mf=132-138C. Os resultados indicam a viabilidade da rota de fabricação de peças em ligas a base de cobre com EMF por atomização a gás da liga, seguida pela consolidação por FSL.

Selective laser melting (SLM) of metallic powders is an additive manufacturing technique that is widely employed to produce 3D components, and is fast becoming an important method for manufacturing near-net shape and complex metallic parts. In this thesis, a comprehensive investigation on the effect of SLM on the mechanical and corrosion properties of the Al-12Si (AS), 316L stainless steel (SS), and 18(Ni)-300 grade managing steel (MS) is investigated, with particular emphasis on the developing (micro- as well as mesa-)structure -property correlations. Detailed microstructural characterization combined with quasi-static tensile, fracture toughness, fatigue crack growth, and unmatched fatigue tests were conducted. The effect of post-SLM heat treatment as well as the scanning strategy (linear vs. checker board hatch style) was examined and the results are compared with those of conventionally manufactured (CM) counterparts. The SLM alloys exhibit a mesostructured, in addition to the fine cellular structure along the boundaries. In a case of SLM-AS, the fine cellular structure imparts higher strength at the cost of ductility, while the mesostructured, which arises due to the laser track hatching, causes the crack path to be tortuous, and in turn leads to substantial increase in fracture toughness. This imparts significant anisotropy to the toughness while tensile properties are nearly-isotropic. The experimental results of SLM-SS also show that higher tensile strengths properties with a marked reduction ductility. In spite of these, the fracture toughness, which ranges between 63 and 87 MPa.m0.5, of the SLM-SS is good, which is a result of the mesostructured induced crack tortuousity.Both tensile and toughness properties of SLM-SS were found to be anisotropic in nature. Upon aging SLM-MS, nanoscale precipitation of intermetallic compounds occurs within the cells that, in turn, lead in marked improvements in tensile strengths properties, but substantial reductions in ductility and fracture toughness. Overall, the mechanical performance, except ductility, of the SLM-MS after aging is found to be similar to that of CM-MS. Importantly, the lack of ductility does not lead to a reduction in toughness. Although the SLM-MS alloy possesses a mesostructured, no significant anisotropy in the mechanical behaviour is observed. The unnoticed studies on SLM-AS, -SS, and -MS reveal that the tensile residual stresses, gas-pores, and unmelted powder particles, can degrade the unmatched highest fatigue properties considerably and hence need be eliminated for high fatigue strength. Room temperature, electrochemical corrosion resistances (CRs) of SLM-AS, -SS and -MS in 0.1M NaCl solution were also evaluated and compared with those CM counterparts. While SLM improves CRs of AS and SS, it degrades that of MS. The results are discussed in terms of microstructural refinement and porosity that are common in SLM alloys.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo estudar as propriedades mecânicas e a caracterização microestrutural de espécimes da liga de Co-Cr-Mo obtidos por manufatura aditiva fusão seletiva a laser (do inglês Selective Laser Melting SLM) e por fundição de precisão, visando a confecção de próteses odontológicas. A partir de pós de Co-Cr-Mo atomizados a gás foram realizadas as seguintes etapas: 1) investigação das propriedades físicas, químicas e térmicas dos pós atomizados em diferentes faixas granulométricas (denominadas: D1 < 15 &mu;m, D2 de 20-50 &mu;m e D3 > 75 &mu;m); 2) confecção de espécimes, em dimensões padronizadas, por meio das técnicas de consolidação; 3) caracterização dos consolidados por análise de: citotoxicidade, porosidade, difração de raios X e dilatometria; 4) caracterização mecânica de tração, flexão em três pontos, dureza (macro e micro Vickers) e caracterização microestrutural (microscopia óptica e eletrônica de varredura). De modo geral, os resultados obtidos foram: a granulometria D2 (20-50 &mu;m) é a que melhor se enquadra nas análises de empacotamento para a consolidação por meio de SLM; a biocompatibilidade das amostras obteve resultado positivo para ambas técnicas de processamento; a avaliação mecânica dos espécimes evidencia que a técnica de fusão seletiva a laser propicia propriedades mecânicas (tensão de escoamento, tensão de ruptura, tensão máxima, alongamento e dureza) superiores as obtidas pela técnica de fundição de precisão; a microestrutura obtida pelo processo SLM é composta por grãos ultrafinos e de elevada homogeneidade química. Conclui-se que, o desenvolvimento do presente estudo evidenciou que na fabricação de componentes odontológicos customizados (coroas) a técnica SLM apresenta qualidade superior quando comparada a fundição de precisão. / The objective of this work was to study the mechanical properties and microstructural characterization of specimens of the Co-Cr-Mo alloy obtained by additive manufacturing -selective laser melting (SLM) and precision casting aiming at the manufacture of dental prostheses. The following steps were carried out on Co-Cr-Mo gas-atomized powders: 1) investigation of the physical, chemical and thermal properties of atomized powders in different grain sizes (denominated: D1 <15 &mu;m, D2 20-50 &mu;m and D3 > 75 &mu;m); 2) the consolidation of standard specimens via consolidation techniques; 3) characterization of consolidated by analysis of: cytotoxicity, porosity, X ray diffraction and dilatometry; 4) mechanical characterization of tensile, 3 point bending, hardness (macro and micro Vickers) tests and microstructural characterization (optical and scanning electron microscopy). In general, the results observed were: the grain size D2 (20-50 &mu;m) is the one that best fits in the analysis of packaging, for the consolidation by SLM; the biocompatibility of the samples obtained a positive result for both processing techniques; the mechanical evaluation of the specimens shows that the SLM technique provides superior mechanical properties (yield stress, rupture stress, maximum stress, elongation and hardness), compared to those obtained by the precision casting technique; the microstructure obtained by the SLM process results in an ultrafine grains with high chemical homogeneity, differentiated by the gross dendritic microstructure in the casting process. In this way, the development of the present study evidenced superior quality in manufacturing customized dental components (copings) by SLM technique compared to precision casting.

Le procédé de fusion sélective par laser est un des nombreux procédés de fabrication additive qui permet la production rapide de pièces à partir d'un fichier CAO (conception assistée par ordinateur) et de lits de poudre. Après une description du fonctionnement du procédé par l'intermédiaire de ses paramètres opératoires, le manuscrit décrit les travaux entrepris pour l'élaboration de pièces en Inconel 625. Ce superalliage à base nickel a fait l'objet d'une étude paramétrique pour déterminer un jeu de paramètre optimal permettant de produire des pièces saines. Cette étude est basée sur des considérations énergétiques qui visent à maximiser le rendement de conversion de l'énergie électromagnétique en énergie thermique tout en assurant la cohésion entre couches. Des essais de traction valident la stratégie employée au niveau de l'étude paramétrique. Un second alliage est étudié, l'Inconel 738 qui est un superalliage renforcé par la précipitation d'une phase γ'-Ni3(Al,Ti). Les travaux entrepris ne concernent pas l'élaboration mais la caractérisation de l'alliage. Il est mis en évidence que celui-ci est dans un état hors de l'équilibre thermodynamique lorsque produit par fusion laser sélective. La précipitation de la phase durcissante n'est pas complète. Ce constat peut permettre d'éviter la fissuration de l'alliage pendant la fabrication en adaptant les paramètres opératoires, notamment au niveau du préchauffage. Une étude sur les traitements thermiques montre que la gamme appliquée traditionnellement à l'alliage coulé ne convient pas pour l'alliage élaboré par fusion sélective ; cette étude ouvre sur des alternatives. Enfin, ces travaux apportent quelques éléments de réponse quant à la pertinence énergétique du procédé. / The selective laser melting (SLM) process is one of the many additive manufacturing processes that allow to rapidly build a part from a computer-aided design (CAD) file and from a powder bed. The work described here deals with the different parameters related to the process, namely the building platform stepping and the laser radiation and its interaction with the metallic matter. The first Ni-based superalloy studied here is Inconel 625 which has been subjected to a parametric study with an energetic approach. It was all about finding the maximum in the conversion of electromagnetic energy into thermal energy. Tensile tests validate the use of the energetic strategy for this alloy. The second studied alloy is Inconel 738 which is hardened by fine γ'-Ni3(Al,Ti) precipitates. Microstructure observations and differential thermal analysis reveal that the γ' precipitation is not complete when the alloy is processed by SLM. This leads to give clues for crack-free processing by adjusting the parameters and especially the preheating feature. Different heat treatments on SLMed materials have been investigated. It appears that the standard procedure applied on cast alloy to reach proper microstructure for good mechanical properties is not adapted to the SLMed alloy. New standards must be defined to comply with the initial out of equilibrium state. Last but not least, the manuscript gives information regarding the energetic use of the process which should be compared with the will of environmental impact reduction policy called by the process.

This thesis aims to investigate the use of additive manufacturing (AM) as a novel manufacturing process for the production of milli-scale chemical reaction systems. Five well developed additive manufacturing techniques; stereolithography (SL), selective laser melting (SLM), fused deposition modelling (FDM), ultrasonic additive manufacture (UAM) and selective laser sintering (SLS) were used to manufacture a number of miniaturised flow devices which were tested using a range of organic and inorganic reactions. SL was used to manufacture a range of functioning milli-scale flow devices from Accura 60 photoresin, with both simple and complex internal channel networks. These devices were used to perform a range of organic and inorganic reactions, including aldehyde and ketone functional group interconversions. Conversion of products within these reactors, were shown to be comparable to commercially available milli-scale coil reactors. More complex designs, which allowed SL parts to be integrated to existing flow and analytical instrumentation, allowed us to develop an automated reaction analysis and optimisation platform. This platform allowed precise control over the reaction conditions, including flow rate, temperature and reagent composition. We also designed a simplex type reaction optimisation software package that could input data in the form of reaction conversions, peak intensities, and thermocouple data, and generate a new set of optimal reaction conditions. SL parts which incorporated embedded analytical components were also manufactured, which allowed us to perform inline reaction analysis as a feedback method for input into the optimisation platform. Stereolithography was shown to be a highly versatile manufacturing method for designing and producing these flow devices, however the process was shown to be still limited by the range of processable materials currently commercially available. SLM was also used to manufacture a number of functioning milli-scale flow devices from stainless steel and titanium, which had simplistic internal channel designs of diameters ranging from 1 to 3 mm. Again, SLM parts were manufactured which incorporated embedded analytical components, which could be integrated into an automated reaction platform. These devices, unlike parts produced via SL, could be attached to heating platforms to allow us to perform high temperature reactions. This control over the reaction temperature formed an essential part of the reaction optimisation platform. These parts were again used to perform a ketone functional group interconversion. Internal structures of these SLM parts were also visualised via micro computed tomography (μCT or microCT) scanning as well as optical microscopy. FDM was used throughout the project as an inexpensive method of prototyping parts which were to be manufactured via more expensive manufacturing processes. This prototyping allowed the optimisation of intricate design features, such as the manufacture of an inline spectroscopic flow cell for integration with a commercially available LC system. FDM was also proposed as a customisable approach to designing and manufacturing flow devices with embedded components, however the current limitations in build resolution and materials choices severely limited the use of FDM for this application. UAM was also proposed as a novel manufacturing process whereby the build process would allow discrete components to be embedded directly into a flow channel. This was demonstrated by embedding a type-k thermocouple across a 2 mm channel. The data from this thermocouple was monitored during a heated reaction, and used as a method of determining the exact reaction conditions the reaction medium was being exposed to. SLS was also proposed as a possible manufacturing method for milli-scale flow devices, however it proved difficult to remove un-sintered powder from parts with internal channel diameters as high as 5 mm. It was shown that this powder was forming a dense semi solid, due to the large degree of shrinkage upon cooling of the SLS parts, which was compressing the powder. More research into optimum processing conditions is required before SLS could be used for the production of intricate channel networks.

Das selektive Laserschmelzen (SLM) erlaubt komplexe Geometrien zu fertigen, die, z. B. in Form von integrierten Kühlkanälen, bei Werkzeugen von großer Bedeutung sind. Aktuell werden in der Industrie hauptsächlich Aluminium-, Stahl-, Titan-, Nickel- und Kobaltchromlegierungen mit SLM verarbeitet. Für die additive Fertigung sind Stähle interessant, die besondere Eigenschaften aufweisen. So wird für Konstruktionsbauteile größtenteils korrosionsbeständiger Stahl verwendet. Ein weiteres Anwendungsfeld ist die Herstellung von Werkzeugen. Die besonderen Ansprüche an die mechanischen Eigenschaften, die für Werkzeuge benötigt werden, erfüllen die Werkzeugstähle. Durch die Neigung zu Rissbildung und Verzug resultiert eine herausfordernde Verarbeitbarkeit im SLM-Prozess. Werkzeugstähle wurden bisher auf Grund dieser Herausforderungen selten mit SLM prozessiert. Es besteht daher ein großer Bedarf die Zusammenhänge zwischen dem Prozess, der Verarbeitbarkeit, dem entstehenden Gefüge und den resultierenden Eigenschaften aufzuklären. In dieser Arbeit werden die Mikrostruktur und die mechanischen Eigenschaften dreier hochfester Stahllegierungen, verarbeitet im SLM-Prozess, untersucht. Eine Legierungsentwicklung, speziell auf die Anforderungen des SLM-Prozesses zugeschnitten, ermöglicht, das volle Potenzial des SLM-Prozesses auszuschöpfen. Die Verarbeitbarkeit der neu entwickelten Legierung im SLM-Prozess konnte erfolgreich gegenüber den Ausgangslegierungen verbessert werden.

The thesis focuses on exploring the sub-grain structure in stainless steel 316L prepared by additive manufacturing (AM). Two powder-bed based AM methods are involved: selective laser melting (SLM) and electron beam melting (EBM). It is already known that AM 316L has heterogeneous property and hierarchy structure: micro-sized melt pools, micro-sized grains, nano-sized sub-grain structure and nano-sized inclusions. Yet, the relation among these structures and their influence on mechanical properties have not been clearly revealed so far. Melt pool boundaries having lower amount of sub-grain segregated network structures (Cellular structure) are weaker compared to the base material. Compared with cell boundaries, grain boundaries have less influence on strength but are still important for ductility. Cell boundaries strengthen the material without losing ductility as revealed by mechanical tests. Cellular structure can be continuous across the melt pool boundaries, low angle sub-grain boundaries, but not grain boundaries. Based on the above understanding, AM process parameters were adjusted to achieve customized mechanical properties. Comprehensive characterization were carried out to investigate the density, composition, microstructure, phase, magnetic permeability, tensile property, Charpy impact property, and fatigue property of both SLM and EBM SS316L at room temperature and at elevated temperatures (250°C and 400°C). In general, SLM SS316L has better strength while EBM SS316L has better ductility due to the different process conditions. Improved cell connection between melt pools were achieved by rotating 45° scanning direction between each layer compared to rotating 90°. Superior mechanical properties (yield strength 552 MPa and elongation 83%) were achieved in SLM SS316L fabricated with 20 µm layer thickness and tested in the building direction. Y2O3 added oxide dispersed strengthening steel (ODSS) were also prepared by SLM to further improve its performance at elevated temperatures. Slightly improved strength and ductility (yield strength 574 MPa and elongation 90%) were obtained on 0.3%Y2O3-ODSS with evenly dispersed nanoparticles (20 nm). The strength drops slightly  but ductility drops dramatically at elevated temperatures. Fractographic analysis results revealed that the coalescence of nano-voids is hindered at room temperature but not at elevated temperatures. The achieved promising properties in large AM specimens assure its potential application in nuclear fusion. For the first time, ITER first wall panel parts with complex inner pipe structure were successfully fabricated by both SLM and EBM which gives great confidence to application of AM in nuclear industry. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript. Paper 5: Manuscript.</p>