Biofuels production and utilisation can reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, dependence on fossil fuels and also improve energy security. Ethanol is the most important biofuel in the transportation sector; however, its production from lignocelluloses faces some challenges. Conventionally, lignocellulosic hydrolysis and fermentation has mostly been performed by separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) or simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF). SHF results in product inhibition during enzymatic hydrolysis and increased contamination risk. During SSF, suboptimal conditions are used and the fermenting organism cannot be reused. Bacterial contamination is another major concern in ethanol production, which usually results in low ethanol yield. In these studies, the above-mentioned challenges have been addressed. A novel method for lignocellulosic ethanol production ‘Simultaneous saccharification filtration and fermentation (SSFF)’ was developed. It circumvents the disadvantages of SSF and SHF; specifically, it uses a membrane for filtration and allows both the hydrolysis and fermentation to be carried out at different optimum conditions. SSFF also offers the possibility of cell reuse for several cultivations. The method was initially applied to pretreated spruce, with a flocculating strain of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. SSFF was further developed and applied to pretreated wheat straw, a xylose rich lignocellulosic material, using encapsulated xylose fermenting strain of S. cerevisiae. High solids loading of 12% suspended solids (SS) was used to combat bacterial contamination and improve ethanol yield. Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) was pretreated with fungal and phosphoric acid in order to improve its ethanol yield. An evaluation of biofuel production in Nigeria was also carried out. SSFF resulted in ethanol yield of 85% of the theoretical yield from pretreated spruce with the flocculating strain. Combination of SSFF with encapsulated xylose fermenting strain facilitated simultaneous glucose and xylose utilisation when applied to pretreated wheat straw; this resulted in complete glucose consumption and 80% xylose utilisation and consequently, 90% ethanol yield of the theoretical level. High solids loading of 12% SS of pretreated birch resulted in 47.2 g/L ethanol concentration and kept bacterial infection under control; only 2.9 g/L of lactic acid was produced at the end of fermentation, which lasted for 160 h while high lactic acid concentrations of 42.6 g/L and 35.5 g/L were produced from 10% SS and 8% SS, respectively. Phosphoric acid pretreatment as well as combination of fungal and phosphoric pretreatment improved the ethanol yield of raw OPEFB from 15% to 89% and 63% of the theoretical value, respectively. In conclusion, these studies show that SSFF can potentially replace the conventional methods of lignocellulosic ethanol production and that high solids loading can be used to suppress bacterial infections during ethanol productions, as well as that phosphoric acid pretreatment can improve ethanol yield from lignocellulosic biomass. / <p>Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Borås to be publicly defended on 31 October 2014, 10.00 a. m. in room E310, University of Borås, Allégatan 1, Borås.</p>

Por sua capacidade de produzir e secretar uma mistura de enzimas durante seu crescimento em material lignocelulósico os fungos filamentosos são reconhecidos como importantes organismos no processo de degradação de biomassa. Porém, o processo demonstra-se limitado, uma vez que o polímero de lignina dificulta o acesso das enzimas celulolíticas a estrutura da celulose. Nesse contexto, o objetivo do presente estudo foi identificar fungos filamentosos capazes de produzir enzimas oxidorredutases e avaliar sua utilização em complemento a enzimas celulases de Trichoderma reesei no processo de sacarificação do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar. Cepas de fungos foram avaliadas quanto a sua capacidade em degradar compostos modelo de lignina, permitindo a seleção e identificação do fungo Pestalotiopsis sp., um ascomiceto com grande importância em biotecnologia. O fungo foi avaliado quanto a sua capacidade de produzir enzimas oxidorredutases e celulases. Os resultados mostraram uma maior atividade da enzima lacase (7,18 U/mg ao 6&#176; dia de cultivo) em relação as outras enzimas estudadas. Os sobrenadantes de T. reesei e Pestalotiopsis sp. foram concentrados 5x e utilizados no ensaio final de sacarificação do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar. O coquetel enzimático produzido a partir da mistura do sobrenadante de T. reesei como o sobrenadante de Pestalotiopsis sp. produziu maior quantidade de açúcares redutores, gerando 15,52 g/L contra 12,29 g/L da amostra controle após 24 horas. Além disso, foi avaliada a atividade enzimática durante o processo de sacarificação. Constatou-se que no coquetel enzimático ocorre um aumento na atividade de celulases em relação ao controle durante as primeiras 6 horas de reação, podendo estar relacionado a despolimerização da lignina pelas enzimas oxidorredutases. Concluiu-se que para a produção de coquetéis enzimáticos mais eficientes para a degradação da biomassa vegetal, podem ser combinados diferentes grupos de enzimas provenientes de diferentes fungos. Assim, são necessários mais estudos acerca do papel de diferentes enzimas durante o processo e a identificação de novos microrganismos e seus perfis de secreção. / Due to its capacity to produce and secrete a mixture of enzymes during its growth in lignocellulosic material the filamentous fungi are recognized as important organisms in the process of degradation of biomass. However, the process is shown to be limited, since the lignin polymer hinders the access of cellulolytic enzymes to the cellulose structure. In this context, the objective of the present study was to identify filamentous fungi capable of producing oxidoreductase enzymes and to evaluate its use in complement to the enzymes cellulases of Trichoderma reesei in the saccharification process of sugarcane bagasse. Fungi strains were evaluated for their ability to degrade lignin model compounds, allowing the selection and identification of the fungus Pestalotiopsis sp., an ascomycete with great importance in biotechnology. The fungus was evaluated for its ability to produce oxidoreductase enzymes and cellulases. The results showed a higher activity of the enzyme laccase (7.18 U / mg) at the 6th day of culture in relation to the other enzymes studied. Supernatants of T. reesei and Pestalotiopsis sp., were concentrated 5x and used in the final saccharification test of sugarcane bagasse. The enzymatic cocktail produced from the mixture of T. reesei and Pestalotiopsis sp. supernatants produced a higher amount of reducing sugars, generating 15.52 g / L against 12.29 g / L of the control sample after 24 hours. In addition, the enzymatic activity during the saccharification process was evaluated. It was observed that in the enzymatic cocktail there is an increase in cellulase activity in relation to the control during the first 6 hours of reaction, and may be related to depolymerization of lignin by oxidoreductases enzymes. It was concluded that for the production of more efficient enzymatic cocktails for the degradation of the vegetal biomass, different groups of enzymes from different fungi can be combined. Thus, further studies are needed on the role of different enzymes during the process and the identification of new microorganisms and their secretion profiles.

Neste trabalho investigamos a porosidade nanométrica de materiais lignocelulósicos derivados do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar que foram submetidos à compressão úmida. A produção dos materiais estudados a partir do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar utilizou processos de tratamento hidrotérmico seguido de processos de deslignificação organossolve (etanol-água) e soda (hidróxido de sódio). Os tratamentos hidrotérmicos utilizaram a fração fibra do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar, no estado bruto e moído, seguindo planejamento experimental fatorial de 2² com ponto central mais configuração estrela. O tratamento hidrotérmico ocorreu em temperaturas de 150-190°C com tempos de 20-60 minutos. Os processos de deslignificação utilizaram temperaturas de 160°C e 190°C para o processo soda e organossolve respectivamente, com tempos de 20, 40, 60, 80 e 100 minutos de tratamento. Os ensaios de compressão úmida foram realizados com cargas de 5, 10, 15, 20 e 25 toneladas e mostraram que materiais mais homogêneos e com menor granulometria, como o material moído e as polpas, são mais fáceis de comprimir. No entanto, os ensaios mostraram que os materiais comprimidos não são homogêneos, apresentando uma variação no teor de humidade do material comprimido (o centro da pastilha é mais seco que a periferia). O adensamento dos materiais também não é homogêneo, sendo o centro mais denso que a periferia das pastilhas. A perda de água durante a compressão foi de 74-85% para o material tratado hidrotermicamente, 66-85% para as polpas obtidas no processo soda e 81-94% para as polpas obtidas no processo organossolve. As análises de termoporometria mostraram que fração apreciável da porosidade nanométrica dos materiais deslignificados é colapsada com as menores pressões aplicadas (21 MPa). Incrementos de pressão (até carga de 107 MPa) promovem reduções comparativamente muito menores na porosidade nanométrica. / In this work we investigate the nanometric porosity of lignocellulosic materials derived from sugarcane bagasse and tested for wet pressing. The production of the studied materials from sugarcane bagasse employed hydrothermal treatments followed by organosolv (ethanol-water) and soda (sodium hydroxide) delignifications. For the hydrothermal treatments, we used bagasse fiber fractions in crude and milled states, following the factorial experimental design of 2² with central point plus star configuration. Hydrothermal treatment used temperatures of 150-190°C and times of 20-60 minutes. The delignification processes used temperatures of 160°C and 190°C for the soda and organosolv, respectively, with treatment times of 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 minutes. Wet pressing was carried out with loads of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 tons and showed that materials with small and homogeneous particles such as the ground materials and the pulps are easier to compress and form a mass of material. However, the tests showed that the compressed materials are not homogeneous, presenting variations in the moisture content of the compressed materials (the center of the tablets were dryer than the periphery). Densification of the materials is also not uniform, the center being denser than the periphery. Water loss during compression was 74-85% for hydrothermally treated material, 66-85% for soda pulps and 81-94% for organosolv pulps. Thermoporometry analysis showed that appreciable fraction of the nanoscale porosity of the delignified materials collapse with the lowest applied pressures (21 MPa). Pressure increments (up to 107 MPa) promotes comparatively much lower reduction on nanoscale porosity.

Cai Yi Jin. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1993. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 118-128). / Chapter 1. --- Introduction / Chapter 1.1 --- Importance and Cultivation history of edible mushroom --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Variety and structure of growth substrates for mushroom --- p.4 / Chapter 1.3 --- Mushroom growth and substrate-degrading enzymes --- p.8 / Chapter 1.4 --- Purpose of study --- p.15 / Chapter 2. --- Methods and Materials / Chapter 2.1 --- Organisms --- p.17 / Chapter 2.2 --- Media --- p.17 / Chapter 2.3 --- Culture conditions --- p.21 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Growth temperature --- p.21 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Growth Studies --- p.21 / Chapter 2.3.2.1 --- Effect of pH on mycelial growth --- p.21 / Chapter 2.3.2.2 --- Effect of different carbon sources on mycelial growth --- p.21 / Chapter 2.3.2.3 --- Effect of lignin-related phenolic monomers and tannin derivatives on fungal growth --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Culture conditions for production of extracellular enzymes --- p.23 / Chapter 2.3.3.1 --- Tyrosinase --- p.23 / Chapter 2.3.3.2 --- Laccase --- p.23 / Chapter 2.3.3.3 --- Manganese-dependent Peroxidase and Lignin Peroxidase --- p.23 / Chapter 2.3.3.4 --- Cellulytic and Xylanolytic enzymes --- p.24 / Chapter 2.3.3.5 --- Lipase --- p.25 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Culture conditions for studying properties of cellulases of V. volvacea --- p.26 / Chapter 2.3.4.1 --- CMCase --- p.26 / Chapter 2.3.4.2 --- "CMCase, FPase and β-Glucosidase" --- p.26 / Chapter 2.3.4.3 --- β-Glucosidase --- p.26 / Chapter 2.4 --- Enzyme assay --- p.27 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Tyrosinase --- p.27 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Laccase --- p.27 / Chapter a. --- o-Tolidine Method --- p.27 / Chapter b. --- ABTS Method --- p.28 / Chapter c. --- Syringaldazine Method --- p.28 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Lignin peroxidase --- p.29 / Chapter 2.4.4 --- Manganese-dependent peroxidase --- p.29 / Chapter 2.4.5 --- Exoglucanase (avicelase) --- p.30 / Chapter 2.4.6 --- Endoglucanase (carboxymethylcellulase or CMCase) --- p.31 / Chapter 2.4.7 --- Filter paper digesting enzyme (FPase) --- p.32 / Chapter 2.4.8 --- P-Glucosidase --- p.32 / Chapter 2.4.9 --- Xylanase --- p.34 / Chapter 2.4.10 --- β-Xylosidase --- p.34 / Chapter 2.4.11 --- Lipase --- p.36 / Chapter 2.5 --- Other analytical methods --- p.36 / Chapter 2.5.1 --- Determination of phenol oxidase activity by the Bavendamm reaction --- p.36 / Chapter 2.5.2 --- Qualitative evaluation of CMCase by Congo red staining --- p.37 / Chapter 2.5.3 --- Effect of phenolic monomers and tannic acid on CMCase activity of V. volvacea --- p.38 / Chapter 2.5.4 --- Protein determination --- p.39 / Chapter 2.5.5 --- Non-denaturing gel electrophoresis pattern of fungal laccases --- p.39 / Chapter 2.6 --- Chemicals --- p.39 / Chapter 3. --- Results / Chapter 3.1 --- Growth and Nutritional characteristics --- p.44 / Chapter 3.1.1 --- Fungal growth on defined and non-defined culture media --- p.44 / Chapter 3.1.2 --- Effect of carbon source on fungal --- p.45 / Chapter 3.1.3 --- Effect of pH on fungal growth --- p.45 / Chapter 3.2 --- Effect of lignin-related phenolic monomers and tannin derivatives on fungal growth --- p.45 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Effect of lignin-related phenolic monomers on fungal growth --- p.45 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Effect of tannin derivatives on fungal growth --- p.61 / Chapter 3.3 --- Phenol Oxidase --- p.67 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Phenol oxidase --- p.67 / Chapter 3.3.1.1 --- Guaiacol-reacting enzyme --- p.67 / Chapter 3.3.1.2 --- o-Anisidine oxidizing enzyme --- p.68 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Tyrosinase --- p.69 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Laccase --- p.69 / Chapter 3.3.3.1 --- "Laccase detected by o-Tolidine, ABTS Syringaldazine" --- p.69 / Chapter 3.3.3.2 --- Effect of pH on laccase activity --- p.69 / Chapter 3.4 --- Lignin-Transforming Enzymes --- p.73 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Lignin peroxidase (LP) --- p.73 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Manganese-dependent peroxidase (MnP) --- p.74 / Chapter 3.5 --- Cellulases --- p.78 / Chapter 3.5.1. --- Cellulases of V. volvacea --- p.78 / Chapter 3.5.1.1 --- Qualitative estimation of cellulose-degrading enzymes of V. volvacea grown on different substrates --- p.78 / Chapter 3.5.1.2 --- Influence of pH and temperature --- p.79 / Chapter 3.5.1.3 --- Cellulolytic activities in cultures grown on cellulose --- p.83 / Chapter 3.5.1.4 --- Cellulolytic activities in cultures grown on paddy straw --- p.91 / Chapter 3.5.1.5 --- β-Glucosidase activity in cultures grown on cellobiose --- p.91 / Chapter 3.5.1.6 --- Effect of lignin-related phenolic monomers and tannic acid on CMCase of V. volvacea --- p.95 / Chapter 3.5.2 --- Cellulases of P.sajor-caju --- p.96 / Chapter 3.5.3 --- Cellulases of L. edodes --- p.96 / Chapter 3.6 --- Xylanase --- p.96 / Chapter 3.6.1 --- "Xylanase of V. volvacea, strain V34" --- p.96 / Chapter 3.6.2 --- Xylanase of P.sajor-caju --- p.100 / Chapter 3.6.3 --- Xylanase of L. edodes --- p.100 / Chapter 3.7 --- Lipase of V. volvacea --- p.103 / Chapter 4. --- Discussion / Chapter 4.1. --- Carbon nutrition and pH for fungal growth --- p.104 / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Carbon nutrition --- p.104 / Chapter 4.1.2 --- pH --- p.104 / Chapter 4.2 --- "Effect of lignin-related phenolic monomers and tannin derivatives on fungal growth of L. edodes, P. sajor-caju and V, volvacea" --- p.105 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Lignin-related phenolic monomers --- p.105 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Tannin derivatives --- p.107 / Chapter 4.3 --- "Production of phenoloxidases by V. volvacea, L. edodes and P. sajor-caju" --- p.108 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Guaiacol- and Anisidine reacting enzymes and Tyrosinase --- p.108 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Laccase --- p.109 / Chapter 4.4. --- "Lignin-degrading Enzymes of V. volvacea, P. sajor-caju and L. edodes" --- p.110 / Chapter 4.5. --- "Cellulolytic and Hemicellulolytic Activity of V. volvacea, P.sajor-caju and L. edodes" --- p.113 / References --- p.118 / Appendix1 --- p.129

<p>Lignocellulose is an ubiquitous source of fixed carbon that is presently underexploited for renewable energy technologies. Currently, producing enzyme cocktails that robustly degrade these feedstocks is a significant economic bottleneck. Anaerobic gut fungi native to the digestive tracts of ruminants and hindgut fermenters are widely understudied despite their inherent ability to degrade a significant portion (~50%) of the lignocellulose in herbivorous animals. Challenges in cultivation due to their strict oxygen sensitivity, and the lack of a central repository to maintain axenic stocks substantially impede the progress with anaerobic fungi. Yet, these microbes have evolved elegant strategies and may harbor novel biomass degrading enzymes that could be used to more efficiently hydrolyze lignocellulose. Developing these organisms through characterization and genome engineering will yield significant contributions to the bioenergy community by improving hydrolysis technologies.</p> <p>In this work, we report the isolation of four novel species of anaerobic gut fungi. A more complete characterization of one of our four fungal isolates is investigated, whereby the effects of substrate composition and the corresponding fungal growth rates are compared. I also explore the growth of one of our fungal isolates on transgenic poplar to understand how fungal growth and enzyme secretion adapt to variable lignin composition. Notably, no significant reductions in growth were observed highlighting the ability of anaerobic fungi to degrade diverse feedstocks regardless of lignin composition. I have additionally included preliminary work intended to identify what epigenetic regulational strategies exist for anaerobic fungi, and how they relate to carbohydrate active enzyme expression. We hope to leverage this knowledge to engineer base enzyme cocktails that release significant portions of the fermentable sugars in untreated or mildly treated plant biomass as a means to make bioenergy technologies more efficient.</p>

Les procédés industriels de transformation des grandes productions végétales génèrent des quantités importantes de coproduits qui peuvent très souvent trouver une valorisation en tant que sources de molécules à valeur ajoutée pour l'agrochimie. Les travaux de thèse se polarisent sur une matière première originale : le chanvre (Cannabis sativa L.), plante riche en une lignine particulière, de caractéristiques différentes de celle du bois et beaucoup plus accessible. Le procédé de défibrage du chanvre (Cannabis sativa L.) génère 30% de fibres pour 70% de co-produits lignocellulosiques : chènevotte (50%) et poudre organique (20%) lesquels ont été étudiés ici comme sources potentielles d'acides hydroxycinnamiques (AHC) tels que les acides férulique (AF) et p-coumarique (ApC). Leur répartition structurale dans la matrice lignocellulosique a été évaluée analytiquement par hydrolyses séquencées. L'AF est majoritairement éthérifié à la structure lignocellulosique, et ce pour les deux matières, tandis que l'ApC est principalement sous forme estérifiée dans la poudre organique et lie en proportions équivalentes par des liaisons ester et éther dans la chènevotte. Le fractionnement des coproduits du chanvre pour l'obtention d'extraits et raffinats performants en acides phénoliques a été étudié par extraction assistée par micro-ondes et extraction thermo-mécano-chimique en extrudeur bi-vis. Ces méthodes ont toutes deux permis d'intensifier l'extraction des AHC. Pour la chènevotte, un solvant hydro-alcoolique alcalin conduit aux rendements optimaux en ApC en réacteur micro-ondes et en AF par extrusion bi-vis tandis que, pour la poudre organique, ce même solvant est le plus efficace pour extraire les deux acides phénoliques par extrusion bi-vis. L'enrichissement en AHC des extraits par adsorption sur différents solides microporeux a été étudié. La zéolithe *BEA (beta) a démontré un fort potentiel tant pour l'adsorption d'AHC de solutions modèles que pour ceux contenus dans les extraits issus des schémas de fractionnement. / The industrial transformation of common cultivated crops generates significant amounts of by-products that can often be valorized as a source of value- added molecules for biochemistry. The present work focuses on an original raw material: hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), rich in a particularly, more accessible, lignin having different characteristics than that of wood. Hemp defibering process (Cannabis sativa L.) generates 30% fibers and 70% lignocellulosic by-products: hemp shives (50%) and hemp dust (20%) which were studied in this work as a potential source of hydroxycinnamic acids (HCA) such as ferulic (FA) and p-coumaric (pCA) acids. Their structural distribution in the lignocellulosic matrix was analytically evaluated by multistage hydrolysis. FA is mostly etherified to the lignocellulosic structure, while pCA is mainly esterified in hemp dust and equally bound through ester and ether linkages in hemp shives. Biorefinery of hemp by-products, to obtain extracts and raffinates which are rich in phenolic acids, was studied by using microwave-assisted extraction and thermo-mechano-chemical extraction using twin-screw extruder. Both methods have helped to intensify the extraction of HCA. For hemp shives, alkaline-hydro alcoholic solvent lead to the optimum yields of pCA by microwave extraction and of FA by twin-screw extrusion, while for hemp dust, the same solvent is the most effective for the extraction of both phenolic acids using twin-screw extraction. The enrichment of HCA extracts by adsorption on different microporous solids has been investigated. The zeolite *BEA (beta) showed a high potential of HCA adsorption from both model solutions and extracts obtained from fractionation.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T19:24:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Juliana_Texto_completo.pdf: 2104939 bytes, checksum: ce60666190df07cee9975989d437d475 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-01-20 / Lignocellulosic materials are abundant in agro-industrial residues and by-products of agroindustry and can be used for fuels and other chemicals of commercial interest. An alternative to physical and chemical methods for bioconversion of lignocellulosic material is the use of enzymes produced by micro-organisms. The aquatic bacterium Gram negative Caulobacter crescentus presents biotechnological potential for the use of these residues because it contains in its genome several gene coding for enzymes involved in the metabolism of lignocellulosic materials, including 5 genes to β-Xylosidases. In this study, the gene xynB2 (1.5 kb) coding the C. crescentus β-Xylosidase II was cloned into the vector pJet1.2 (Fermentas) and subcloned in frame in the sites EcoRI/XbaI of expression vector pPROEXHta (Invitrogen). A histidine tail fusion protein was obtained after induction and expression of gene xynB2 in E. coli (DH10B) with IPTG (1 mM). The recombinant β-Xylosidase II (β-Xylrec- II) was purified by chromatography using nickel-Sepharose resin and a pure enzyme was characterized by biochemical kinetics parameters. A single band of 65 kDa was obtained by SDS-PAGE 9% for C. crescentus β-Xyl-rec-II purified, which showed a specific activity of 215 U / mg, pH optimum equal to 6, the optimum temperature of 55 °C and half life of 4 h at 50 °C. After 24 h incubation at pH 6 the enzyme retained 95% of activity. Most of the ions inhibited the activity of β-Xylosidase II, but a 32% increase was observed in the presence of KCl (2mM). The kinetic parameters KM and VMáx were equal to 8.4 mM and 370 moles / min, respectively. The ability of C. crescentus β-Xyl-rec-II hydrolyse xylan and sugarcane bagasse residue was assessed after incubation with these Xylanase purified from Aspergillus alliaceus. The relative percentage of hydrolysis products of xylan and sugar cane bagasse, increased 2.5 and 6.5 times, respectively, after incubation for 18 hours with C. crescentus β- Xyl-rec-II pure, thus highlighting the possibility of using this enzyme in biotechnological processes. In addition, β-Xil-rec-II was also used for the production of a polyclonal antibody in rabbit that showed by "Western blot" assay a highly specific recognition of the purified protein. In order to investigate the role of xynB2 gene to C. crescentus, two mutants were obtained. The first one was constructed by insertion of a spectinomycin resistance cassette into the xynB2 gene by double homologous recombination, generating a null mutant strain named RSJU-2. The second one was obtained by cloning of xynB2 gene under the control of the inducible xylose promoter generating a strain denominated pMOA. β-Xylosidase activity was measured in the RSJU-2, pMOA and parental strain (NA1000) cells of C. crescentus which were grown in the absence and in the presence of different agro-industrial residues and others carbon sources. The xynB2 gene depletion made cells more able to produce high activities of other β-Xylosidases in the presence of different residues, for instance, β- Xylosidase activity produced by RSJU-2 cells was almost 15 times higher than the activity showed by NA1000 in the presence of sugarcane bagasse. These results indicate that the absence o xynB2 gene up-regulates the expression of other β-Xylosidases in C. crescentus. On the other hand, a decreased activity of β-Xylosidase was observed in the strain pMOA, suggesting that the overexpression of β-Xylosidase II down-regulates C. crescentus β - Xylosidases activities. To verify that the variation in activity levels of β -Xylosidase occur as a consequence of variations in the levels of transcription of β-Xylosidases genes in different strains, we constructed a lacZ- fusion transcription by cloning the E. coli lacZ gene under the control of xynB2 gene promoter. Thus, the β-Galactosidase activity was measured as a function of xynB2 promoter activity. Tests of promoter activity by measuring the activity of β- Galactosidase in different strains showed that the xynB2 gene is transcription-dependent. / Materiais lignocelulósicos são abundantes em resíduos agroindustriais e subprodutos da agroindústria e podem ser usados para produção de combustíveis e outros químicos de interesse comercial. Uma alternativa aos métodos físicos e químicos para bioconversão de material lignocelulósico é o uso de enzimas produzidas por micro-organismos. A bactéria aquática Gram negativa Caulobacter crescentus apresenta potencial biotecnológico para o uso destes resíduos por conter em seu genoma vários genes que codificam para enzimas envolvidas com o metabolismo de materiais lignocelulósicos, incluindo 5 genes para β- Xilosidases. No presente trabalho o gene xynB2 (1,5 kb), que codifica para a β-xilosidade II de C. crescentus, foi clonado no vetor pJet1.2 (Fermentas) e subclonado em fase de leitura nos sítios EcoRI/XbaI do vetor de expressão pPROEX-HTa (Invitrogen). Uma proteína de fusão com cauda de histidinas foi obtida após indução da expressão do gene xynB2 em E. coli (DH10B) com IPTG (1mM). A β-xilosidade II recombinante (β-Xil-II-rec) foi purificada por cromatografia usando resina de níquel-sepharose e a enzima pura caracterizada quanto a parâmetros cinéticos e bioquímicos. Uma banda única de 65 KDa foi obtida em gel SDSPAGE 9% para a β-Xil-rec-II purificada de C. crescentus, a qual mostrou uma atividade específica de 215 U/mg, pH ótimo igual a 6, temperatura ótima de 55°C e meia vida de 4 horas a 50°C. Após 24 h de incubação em pH 6 a enzima reteve 95% da atividade inicial. A maioria dos íons inibiu a atividade de β-xilosidade II, mas um aumento de 32% foi observado na presença de KCl (2mM). Os parâmetros cinéticos KM e VMáx foram iguais a 8,4 mM e 370 moles/min, respectivamente. A capacidade da β-Xilosidase II recombinante pura de C. crescentus hidrolisar xilano e o resíduo bagaço de cana foi avaliada após incubação prévia destes com a Xilanase purificada de Aspergillus alliaceus. As porcentagens relativas de produtos de hidrólise do xilano e bagaço de cana-de-açúcar aumentaram 2,5 e 6,5 vezes, respectivamente, após incubação por 18 horas com a β-Xil-II-rec pura de C. crescentus, ressaltando assim, a possibilidade de aplicação desta enzima em processos biotecnológicos. Em adição, a β-Xil-II-rec foi usada para a produção de um anticorpo policlonal em coelho que mostrou por ensaios de Western Blot uma elevada especificidade para reconhecimento da proteína purificada. Paralelamente, com o objetivo de investigar o papel do gene xynB2 para C. crescentus, dois mutantes foram obtidos. O primeiro foi construído pela inserção de um cassete de resistência a espectinomicina dentro do gene xynB2 por dupla recombinação homóloga, gerando uma linhagem mutante nula denominada RSJU-2. Os segundo foi obtido por clonagem do gene xynB2 sob o controle de um promotor indutível por xilose gerando uma linhagem denominada pMOA. A atividade de β-Xilosidase foi mensurada nas células das linhagens RSJU-2, pMOA e parental (NA1000) de C. crescentus, as quais cresceram na ausência e presença de diferentes resíduos agroindustriais. A depleção do gene xynB2 fez as células mais hábeis a produzirem altas atividades de outras β-Xilosidases na presença de diferentes resíduos ou fontes de carbono. Estes resultados indicam que a ausência do gene xynB2 regula positivamente a expressão de outras β-Xilosidases em C. crescentus. Por outro lado, um decréscimo na atividade de β- Xilosidases foi observado na linhagem pMOA, sugerindo que a superexpressão da β- XilosidaseII regula negativamente a atividade de β-Xilosidases. Para verificar se a variação nos níveis de atividade de β-Xilosidase ocorre como um reflexo de variações nos níveis de transcrição de genes de β-Xilosidases nas diferentes cepas, foi construído uma fusão de transcrição a partir da clonagem do promotor do gene xynB2 a frente do gene lacZ de E. coli. Assim, foi quantificada a atividade de β-Galactosidase como uma medida da atividade do promotor do gene xynB2, o que demonstrou que gene xynB2 é dependente de transcrição.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-12T14:48:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Juliana_Texto_completo.pdf: 2104939 bytes, checksum: ce60666190df07cee9975989d437d475 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-01-20 / Lignocellulosic materials are abundant in agro-industrial residues and by-products of agroindustry and can be used for fuels and other chemicals of commercial interest. An alternative to physical and chemical methods for bioconversion of lignocellulosic material is the use of enzymes produced by micro-organisms. The aquatic bacterium Gram negative Caulobacter crescentus presents biotechnological potential for the use of these residues because it contains in its genome several gene coding for enzymes involved in the metabolism of lignocellulosic materials, including 5 genes to &#946;-Xylosidases. In this study, the gene xynB2 (1.5 kb) coding the C. crescentus &#946;-Xylosidase II was cloned into the vector pJet1.2 (Fermentas) and subcloned in frame in the sites EcoRI/XbaI of expression vector pPROEXHta (Invitrogen). A histidine tail fusion protein was obtained after induction and expression of gene xynB2 in E. coli (DH10B) with IPTG (1 mM). The recombinant &#946;-Xylosidase II (&#946;-Xylrec- II) was purified by chromatography using nickel-Sepharose resin and a pure enzyme was characterized by biochemical kinetics parameters. A single band of 65 kDa was obtained by SDS-PAGE 9% for C. crescentus &#946;-Xyl-rec-II purified, which showed a specific activity of 215 U / mg, pH optimum equal to 6, the optimum temperature of 55 °C and half life of 4 h at 50 °C. After 24 h incubation at pH 6 the enzyme retained 95% of activity. Most of the ions inhibited the activity of &#946;-Xylosidase II, but a 32% increase was observed in the presence of KCl (2mM). The kinetic parameters KM and VMáx were equal to 8.4 mM and 370 &#61549;moles / min, respectively. The ability of C. crescentus &#946;-Xyl-rec-II hydrolyse xylan and sugarcane bagasse residue was assessed after incubation with these Xylanase purified from Aspergillus alliaceus. The relative percentage of hydrolysis products of xylan and sugar cane bagasse, increased 2.5 and 6.5 times, respectively, after incubation for 18 hours with C. crescentus &#946;- Xyl-rec-II pure, thus highlighting the possibility of using this enzyme in biotechnological processes. In addition, &#946;-Xil-rec-II was also used for the production of a polyclonal antibody in rabbit that showed by "Western blot" assay a highly specific recognition of the purified protein. In order to investigate the role of xynB2 gene to C. crescentus, two mutants were obtained. The first one was constructed by insertion of a spectinomycin resistance cassette into the xynB2 gene by double homologous recombination, generating a null mutant strain named RSJU-2. The second one was obtained by cloning of xynB2 gene under the control of the inducible xylose promoter generating a strain denominated pMOA. &#946;-Xylosidase activity was measured in the RSJU-2, pMOA and parental strain (NA1000) cells of C. crescentus which were grown in the absence and in the presence of different agro-industrial residues and others carbon sources. The xynB2 gene depletion made cells more able to produce high activities of other &#946;-Xylosidases in the presence of different residues, for instance, &#946;- Xylosidase activity produced by RSJU-2 cells was almost 15 times higher than the activity showed by NA1000 in the presence of sugarcane bagasse. These results indicate that the absence o xynB2 gene up-regulates the expression of other &#946;-Xylosidases in C. crescentus. On the other hand, a decreased activity of &#946;-Xylosidase was observed in the strain pMOA, suggesting that the overexpression of &#946;-Xylosidase II down-regulates C. crescentus &#946; - Xylosidases activities. To verify that the variation in activity levels of &#946; -Xylosidase occur as a consequence of variations in the levels of transcription of &#946;-Xylosidases genes in different strains, we constructed a lacZ- fusion transcription by cloning the E. coli lacZ gene under the control of xynB2 gene promoter. Thus, the &#946;-Galactosidase activity was measured as a function of xynB2 promoter activity. Tests of promoter activity by measuring the activity of &#946;- Galactosidase in different strains showed that the xynB2 gene is transcription-dependent. / Materiais lignocelulósicos são abundantes em resíduos agroindustriais e subprodutos da agroindústria e podem ser usados para produção de combustíveis e outros químicos de interesse comercial. Uma alternativa aos métodos físicos e químicos para bioconversão de material lignocelulósico é o uso de enzimas produzidas por micro-organismos. A bactéria aquática Gram negativa Caulobacter crescentus apresenta potencial biotecnológico para o uso destes resíduos por conter em seu genoma vários genes que codificam para enzimas envolvidas com o metabolismo de materiais lignocelulósicos, incluindo 5 genes para &#946;- Xilosidases. No presente trabalho o gene xynB2 (1,5 kb), que codifica para a &#946;-xilosidade II de C. crescentus, foi clonado no vetor pJet1.2 (Fermentas) e subclonado em fase de leitura nos sítios EcoRI/XbaI do vetor de expressão pPROEX-HTa (Invitrogen). Uma proteína de fusão com cauda de histidinas foi obtida após indução da expressão do gene xynB2 em E. coli (DH10B) com IPTG (1mM). A &#946;-xilosidade II recombinante (&#946;-Xil-II-rec) foi purificada por cromatografia usando resina de níquel-sepharose e a enzima pura caracterizada quanto a parâmetros cinéticos e bioquímicos. Uma banda única de 65 KDa foi obtida em gel SDSPAGE 9% para a &#946;-Xil-rec-II purificada de C. crescentus, a qual mostrou uma atividade específica de 215 U/mg, pH ótimo igual a 6, temperatura ótima de 55°C e meia vida de 4 horas a 50°C. Após 24 h de incubação em pH 6 a enzima reteve 95% da atividade inicial. A maioria dos íons inibiu a atividade de &#946;-xilosidade II, mas um aumento de 32% foi observado na presença de KCl (2mM). Os parâmetros cinéticos KM e VMáx foram iguais a 8,4 mM e 370 &#61549;moles/min, respectivamente. A capacidade da &#946;-Xilosidase II recombinante pura de C. crescentus hidrolisar xilano e o resíduo bagaço de cana foi avaliada após incubação prévia destes com a Xilanase purificada de Aspergillus alliaceus. As porcentagens relativas de produtos de hidrólise do xilano e bagaço de cana-de-açúcar aumentaram 2,5 e 6,5 vezes, respectivamente, após incubação por 18 horas com a &#946;-Xil-II-rec pura de C. crescentus, ressaltando assim, a possibilidade de aplicação desta enzima em processos biotecnológicos. Em adição, a &#946;-Xil-II-rec foi usada para a produção de um anticorpo policlonal em coelho que mostrou por ensaios de Western Blot uma elevada especificidade para reconhecimento da proteína purificada. Paralelamente, com o objetivo de investigar o papel do gene xynB2 para C. crescentus, dois mutantes foram obtidos. O primeiro foi construído pela inserção de um cassete de resistência a espectinomicina dentro do gene xynB2 por dupla recombinação homóloga, gerando uma linhagem mutante nula denominada RSJU-2. Os segundo foi obtido por clonagem do gene xynB2 sob o controle de um promotor indutível por xilose gerando uma linhagem denominada pMOA. A atividade de &#946;-Xilosidase foi mensurada nas células das linhagens RSJU-2, pMOA e parental (NA1000) de C. crescentus, as quais cresceram na ausência e presença de diferentes resíduos agroindustriais. A depleção do gene xynB2 fez as células mais hábeis a produzirem altas atividades de outras &#946;-Xilosidases na presença de diferentes resíduos ou fontes de carbono. Estes resultados indicam que a ausência do gene xynB2 regula positivamente a expressão de outras &#946;-Xilosidases em C. crescentus. Por outro lado, um decréscimo na atividade de &#946;- Xilosidases foi observado na linhagem pMOA, sugerindo que a superexpressão da &#946;- XilosidaseII regula negativamente a atividade de &#946;-Xilosidases. Para verificar se a variação nos níveis de atividade de &#946;-Xilosidase ocorre como um reflexo de variações nos níveis de transcrição de genes de &#946;-Xilosidases nas diferentes cepas, foi construído uma fusão de transcrição a partir da clonagem do promotor do gene xynB2 a frente do gene lacZ de E. coli. Assim, foi quantificada a atividade de &#946;-Galactosidase como uma medida da atividade do promotor do gene xynB2, o que demonstrou que gene xynB2 é dependente de transcrição.

Super absorbent polymers (SAP) can absorb liquid many times its own weight and is used in diapers and incontinence pads. The most common type of SAP is cross-linked polyacrylic acid. The production of acrylic acid uses crude oil as starting material. This means that the final price of acrylic acid is affected by the price of crude oil which is expected to rise. This has led to an increasing interest in developing a sustainable bioproduction process that uses renewable lignocellulosic raw material for the making of acrylic acid. Lignocellulose is the material that plants and trees consist of and it contains big amounts of sugar. Sugar molecules in lignocellulose can serve as substrate for microorganisms that can transform them into 3-hydroxipropionic acid, which in turn can be converted to acrylic acid. In order to use the sugar molecules from lignocellulose, some type of pretreatment is required. However, the pretreatments that are available today are not efficient enough to be applied on a large scale and some also cause the formation of microbial inhibitors. The microbial conversion of sugar to 3-hydroxipropionic acid do not show sufficient efficacy so far, but the process is under development and improvements are regularly made. Furthermore would it be advantageous if polymerization of acrylic acid could be made directly in the fermentation broth without any energy consuming separation stepsAttempts to polymerize acrylic acid in fermentations broths from yeast have been performed. The SAP properties; absorption capacity, absorption capacity under pressure and gel strength were evaluated by methods commonly used in the hygiene industry. These characteristics are important if the SAP is to be used in diapers and incontinence pads. To examine what compounds in the fermentations broth that affected the polymerization process and SAP properties, an experimental design was made. With help of the design quantitative and statistical methods were used to determine which compound had an impact. Four groups of compounds were selected for examination; sugars, alcohols, acids and aromatic compounds. The results of the experiments conducted showed that it is possible to polymerize SAP in fermentation broth from yeast using acid pretreated spruce as sugar source. The characterization showed that the absorption capacity was unchanged while the gel strength deteriorated significantly. It was also noted that SAP polymerized in fermentations broths had strong colors in contrast to conventional SAP, which is white. Qualitative and statistical analysis showed that the aromatic compounds affected the polymerization and SAP properties negative.

The utilization of lignocellulosic residues to produce renewable energy is an interesting alternative to meet the increasing demand of fuels while at the same time reducing greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. Sweet sorghum bagasse is a lignocellulosic residue composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin; and it is a promising substrate for ethanol production because its complex carbohydrates may be hydrolyzed and converted into simple sugars, and then fermented into ethanol. However, the utilization of lignocellulosic residues is difficult and inefficient. Lignocellulose is a very stable and compact complex structure, which is linked by β-1,4 and β-1,3 glycosidic bonds. Furthermore, the crystalline and amorphous features of cellulose fibers and the presence of hemicellulose and lignin make the conversion of lignocellulose into fermentable sugars currently impractical at commercial scale. The bioconversion of lignocellulose in nature is performed by microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria, which produce enzymes that are able to degrade lignocellulose. The present study evaluated the bioconversion of lignocellulosic residues of sweet sorghum into simple sugars using filamentous fungi directly in the hydrolysis of the substrate, without prior isolation of the enzymes. The fungus Neurospora crassa and some wild fungi (that grew naturally on sweet sorghum bagasse) were used in this investigation. The effect of the fungi on substrate degradation and the sugars released after hydrolysis were evaluated, and then compared with standard hydrolysis performed by commercial enzymes (isolated cellulases). In addition, different combinations of fungi and enzymes were used to determine the best approach. The main goal was to verify if the fungi were able to attack and break down the lignocellulose structure directly and at a reasonable rate, rather than by the current method utilizing isolated enzymes. The main finding of this study was that the fungi (N. crassa and wild fungi) were able to degrade sweet sorghum bagasse directly; however, in all of the cases, the hydrolysis process was not efficient because the hydrolysis rate was much lower than the enzymatic hydrolysis rate. Hydrolysis using a combination of fungus and commercial enzymes was a good approach, but still not efficient enough for practical use. The best results of combined hydrolysis were obtained when the substrate was under the fungus attack for three days and then, commercial enzymes with low enzymatic activity (7 FPU/g and 25 CBU/g) were added to the solution. These enzymes represent 10% of the current enzymatic activity recommended per gram of substrate. This process reached reasonable levels of sugars (close to 85% of sugars yield obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis); however, the conversion rate was still slower, making the process impractical and more expensive since it took twice the amount of time as commercial enzymes. Furthermore, the wild fungi able to degrade cellulose were isolated, screened, and identified. Two of them belong to the genus Aspergillus, one to the genus Acremonium, and one to the genus Rhizopus. Small concentration of spores-0.5mL- (see Table 4, CHAPTER III- for specific number of spores per mL) did not show any sugar released during hydrolysis of sweet sorghum bagasse. However, when the concentration of spores was increased (to 5mL and 10mL of solution), citric acid production was detected. This finding indicates that those wild fungi were able to degrade lignocellulose, even though no simple sugars were measured, citric acid production is an indicator of fungi growing and utilization of lignocellulose as nutrient. It is assumed that the fungi consume the sugars at the same time they are released, thus they are not detected. The maximum concentration of citric acid (~14.50 mg/mL) was achieved between days 8-11 of hydrolysis. On the other hand, before using lignocellulose, the substrate needed to be pretreated in order to facilitate its decomposition and subsequent hydrolysis. Sweet sorghum bagasse was washed three times to remove any soluble sugars remaining after the juice was extracted from the stalks. Then, another finding of this study was that the first wash solution could be used for ethanol production since the amount of sugars present in it was close to 13°Brix. The ethanol yield after 48 hours of fermentation was in average 6.82mg/mL, which is close to the theoretical ethanol yield. The other two washes were too dilute for commercial ethanol production. In terms of pretreatments, the best one to break down sweet sorghum bagasse was 2% (w/v) NaOH. This pretreatment shows the highest amounts of glucose and xylose released after hydrolysis. Unwashed and untreated bagasse (raw bagasse) did not show any sugar released. In terms of ethanol, 74.50% of the theoretical yield was reached by enzymatic hydrolysis, while 1.10% was reached by hydrolysis using the fungus N. crassa. Finally, it is important to remark that further investigation is needed to improve the direct conversion of lignocellulose into fermentable sugars by fungal enzymes. This approach is a promising technology that needs to be developed and improved to make it efficient and feasible at commercial scale.