La ricerca si colloca nell’ambito degli studi sull’adattamento, scegliendo una prospettiva ispirata alle teorie sviluppate dal filosofo russo Michail Bachtin riguardo all’autorialità. La domanda da cui muove l’analisi di tre adattamenti audiovisivi del romanzo dostoevskiano I fratelli Karamazov si riferisce all’adattabilità sullo schermo del principio letterario della polifonia, individuato da Bachtin. I tre adattamenti, scelti per elementi di omogeneità formale e di eterogeneità rispetto alla resa polifonica sono: il film Brothers Karamazov (Richard Brooks, Stati Uniti 1958); lo sceneggiato televisivo I fratelli Karamazov, (Sandro Bolchi, Italia 1969) e il film Brat’ja Karamazovy, (Ivan Pyr’ev, Michail Ul’janov e Kirill Lavrov, Unione Sovietica 1969). Prima di procedere alle analisi, attraverso una disamina della critica e dei testi bachtinani, abbiamo voluto riconnettere la polifonia letteraria alle ricerche filosofiche dal teorico russo nel corso degli anni Venti e all’humus culturale della filosofia religiosa russa. In seguito a questo approfondimento “genealogico”, abbiamo identificato le implicazioni formali della polifonia e avanzato la nostra proposta metodologica, fondata sulla ripresa dell’elemento autoriale in senso bachtiniano. Nel corso degli anni Settanta, infatti, la critica letteraria e cinematografica è stata influenza dal concetto di morte dell’Autore e ha posto l’accento univocamente sull’intertestualità. Attraverso una disamina delle teorie dell’adattamento, dalla trasmutazione di Umberto Eco alla ri-creazione di Carlo Testa, proponiamo una nuova formulazione ispirata agli studi bachtiniani sull’eccedenza di visione, la posizione nel mondo unica e insostituibile da cui scaturisce la visione dell’autore ( e, nel nostro caso, dell’adattatore). In un secondo momento l’analisi si rivolge alla sceneggiatura e al prodotto audiovisivo, attraverso una metodologia integrata che contempli una fase comparativa, drammaturgica, strutturale, tematica e linguistica. Il proposito che orienta le fasi dell’analisi è quello di valutare la resa polifonica delle tre opere, identificando le condizioni che agevolano la polifonia in un prodotto audiovisivo. / The research pertains to the field of adaptation studies, choosing a perspective inspired by the theories developed by Russian philosopher Mikhail Bakhtin on authorship. The question from which the whole analysis of the three audiovisual adaptations of Dostoyevsky’s novel The Brothers Karamazov moves, refers to the adaptability for the screen of the literary principle of polyphony as identified by Bakhtin. The three adaptations, chosen for elements of formal homogeneity and heterogeneity in relationship to polyphonic rendition are: the movie Brothers Karamazov (Richard Brooks, USA 1958); the TV Drama I fratelli Karamazov (Sandro Bolchi, Italy 1969) and the movie Bratya Karamazovy, (Ivan Pyryev, Michail Ulyanov and Kirill Lavrov, Soviet Union 1969). Before moving forward with the analysis, through an examination of both Bakhtin’s critic and texts, we wanted to reconnect literary polyphony with the Russian theoretician’s philological research in the 1920’s and the cultural hummus of Russian religious philosophy. After this “genealogical” study, we identified polyphony’s formal implications and advanced our methodological proposal, founded on the assessment of the authorial element in a bakhtinian sense. During the Seventies, in fact, literary and film critic was influenced by the concept of the death of the Author, and focused uniquely on intertextuality Through an examination of adaptation theories, from Umberto Eco’s transmutation to Carlo Testa’s re-creation, we are proposing a new formulation inspired by bakhtinian studies on surplus vision, the unique and irreplaceable view of the world the author’s (and in our case, the adapter’s) vision stems from. At a later stage the analysis turns to the screenplay and the audiovisual product, through an integrated methodology covering a comparative, dramaturgical, structural, thematic and linguistic phase. The purpose that guides the phases of the analysis is to evaluate the polyphonic rendition of the three works, identifying the conditions that facilitate polyphony in an audiovisual product.

Ce travail de thèse s’intéresse aux corrections relativistes induites par une impulsion lumineuse ultra-brève et intense dans la matière condensée. Il s’inscrit dans la thématique nouvelle de la désaimantation ultra-rapide cohérente de systèmes ferromagnétiques induite par une impulsion laser femto-seconde [Nature 5, 515 (2009)] [1]. Un couplage de nature relativiste entre les spins et les photons a été proposé pour expliquer les résultats expérimentaux observés dans [1]. La première partie de ce travail étudie la limite non relativiste du formalisme de Dirac en présence d’un champ électromagnétique dépendant du temps. En utilisant la transformation de Foldy-Wouthuysen , le hamiltonien électronique de Dirac en présence d’un champ électromagnétique dépendant du temps est développé au cinquième ordre en 1/m. Les résultats obtenus ont permis de postuler une expression générale de l’interaction directe entre le spin et le champ électromagnétique sous la forme d’un développement en série entière. Un travail similaire est réalisé dans le cadre du problème relativiste à deux électrons en interaction coulombienne. La diagonalisation du hamiltonien de Breit au troisième ordre en 1/m fait apparaître une interaction singulière entre le spin, le champ coulombien et le champ électromagnétique externe dépendant du temps. Dans la deuxième partie, on propose un modèle classique pour modéliser une expérience de magnéto-optique non-linéaire réalisée sur des échantillons ferromagnétiques. Les prédictions théoriques des angles de rotation Faraday sont comparées aux résultats expérimentaux de la référence [1] et permettent d’ouvrir une discussion à propos des mécanismes physiques gouvernant les phénomènes magnéto-optiques observés. Le rôle joué par l’interaction spin-orbite entre les spins et le champ électrique du laser est discuté. / This thesis focuses on the relativistic corrections induced by an ultra-short and intense light pulse in condensed matter. It is part of the new theme of the coherent ultra-fast demagnetization of ferromagnetic systems induced by a femtosecond laser pulse [ Nature, 5, 515 (2009)] [1]. A relativistic coupling between spins and photons has been proposed to explain the experimental results obtained in [1]. The first part of this work focuses on the nonrelativistic limit of the Dirac’s formalism. By means of the Foldy–Wouthuysen transformation the nonrelativistic approximation of the external-electromagnetic-field Dirac equation to fifth order in powers of 1/m is obtained. Generalizing this result we postulate a general expression of the direct spin–field electronic hamiltonian valid at any order in 1/m. A similar work is performed on a two-interacting electrons system described with the Breit hamiltonian, whose the diagonalization at third order in 1/m illustrates an original coupling between the spin, the coulombian interaction and the time-dependent external electromagnetic field. In a second part, a classical model is developed for modeling ultrafast nonlinear coherent magneto-optical experiments performed on ferromagnetic thin films. Theoretical predictions of the Faraday rotation angles are compared to available experimental values and give meaningful insights about the physical mechanisms underlying the observed coherent magneto-optical phenomena. The crucial role played by the spin-orbit mechanism resulting from the direct interaction between the external electric field of the laser and the electron spins of the sample is underlined.

Cette thèse porte sur l’étude du comportement mécanique et vibratoire d’un composite biosourcé incorporant un matériau viscoélastique. Les matériaux étudiés sont des stratifiés en composite lin/greenpoxy et des stratifiés viscoélastiques composés d'un noyau viscoélastique en caoutchouc naturel confiné entre deux composites. La première partie du travail a été consacrée à l’étude de l’influence de l’intégration de la couche viscoélastique sur le comportement mécanique des composites. L’analyse des résultats expérimentaux et l’observation des signaux d’émission acoustique obtenus dans ces composites soumis à différentes sollicitations mécaniques en statique et en fatigue ont permis d’identifier les signatures acoustiques des mécanismes d’endommagement prépondérants dans les deux matériaux. Dans un deuxième temps, les propriétés dynamiques de ces composites ont été déterminées à partir des essais de vibration. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que la couche viscoélastique a joué un rôle majeur dans l'amortissement et la dissipation d'énergie des composites. Suite à cette analyse, nous avons mis en place une procédure, utilisant la méthode des éléments finis, pour calculer l’amortissement de ces matériaux. Dans le but de mettre en évidence l’influence des caractéristiques de la couche viscoélastique, une étude paramétrique a été menée sur le composite viscoélastique, permettant d’optimiser l’amortissement de ce matériau en faisant varier divers paramètres. Enfin, le comportement visqueux des composites a été caractérisé par la méthode de résonance non linéaire en faisant varier l’amplitude d’excitation. / This thesis focuses on the study of the mechanical and vibration behaviour of a flax fibre reinforced composites with and without an interleaved natural viscoelastic layer. The composite materials have been characterized experimentally using different mechanical and vibrational tests. First, both types of composites were studied using uni-axial tensile and three-points bending tests. Acoustic emission (AE) has been often used for the identification and characterization of micro failure mechanisms in composites. The results showed that these composites have very high specific characteristics. It can be used for applications currently using composites reinforced with synthetic fibres such glass, carbon…. Next, experimental and finite element vibration analyses were carried out on the composites with and without an interleaved natural viscoelastic layer. A good agreement between the two methods was obtained. It has been shown that the viscoelastic layer plays a major role in damping because it has a high level of energy dissipation. Therefore, it improves with a significant way the modal properties of the composite. Finally, nonlinear resonance tests were performed on the composites. It has been shown that the viscoelastic layer generates a nonlinear behaviour in the material. The linear and nonlinear, elastic and dissipative parameters have been calculated to deduce finally that nonlinear parameters are more sensitive to heterogeneities than those derived from linear vibration tests.

L’étude présentée porte sur la caractérisation et la comparaison des propriétés quasi-statiques et en fatigue de composites à fibres de lin et de verre avec une matrice époxy. Une importante campagne d’essais de fatigue a été réalisée à partir des propriétés quasi-statiques de traction et cisaillement plan mesurées. Il apparaît que les caractéristiques en statique et en fatigue du verre/époxy sont supérieures à celles du lin/époxy à taux de fibres et stratification identiques. Cependant, en raison de la faible densité des renforts de lin, les écarts entre les propriétés spécifiques des deux matériaux sont faibles. La mesure de l’évolution des propriétés en fatigue a mis à jour des comportements phénoménologiques particuliers tels que la diminution de l’amortissement et l’augmentation de la rigidité des lin/époxy  ayant des fibres parallèles à la direction du chargement, au cours de la vie des éprouvettes. Le suivi de l’endommagement par la mesure des densités de fissures montre que celle-ci augmente avec le chargement et le nombre de cycles appliqués. Les simulations par éléments finis de la durée de vie des composites lin/époxy, intégrant la variabilité des paramètres du modèle par la méthode Monté-Carlo, donnent des courbes de Wöhler conservatives par rapport aux données expérimentales. Conformément aux mesures expérimentales, la variabilité des durées de vie calculées diminue lorsque le chargement baisse / The present study focuses on the characterization and comparison of the quasi-static and fatigue properties of flax and glass fibre reinforced composites with an epoxy matrix. An extensive experimental campaign of fatigue tests have been performed using the measured quasi-static tension and in plane-shear properties. It appears that the static and fatigue characteristics of the glass/epoxy composites are higher than that of flax/epoxy ones with similar fibre volume fraction and lay-ups. However, due to the low density of flax reinforcements, the differences between the specific properties of the two materials are low. The measurement of the evolution of the fatigue properties has highlighted particular phenomenological behaviours such as the decrease of the damping and the increase of the stiffness of flax/epoxy composites having fibres parallel to the loading direction, during specimens’ life. The monitoring of material damage by measuring the crack density showed its increase with the loading level and the number of cycles applied. Finite elements simulations of the life cycle of flax/epoxy composites, incorporating the variability of the model’s parameters by Monte Carlo method, gave conservative Wöhler curves compared with experimental data. In agreement with the experimental measurements, the variability of lifetimes calculated decreases when the load decreases

Le lin, principale plante à fibres cultivée en France possède un intérêt industriel pour la qualité de ses fibres. Les cultures de lin sont régulièrement attaquées par un champignon tellurique, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lini (Fol), responsable des plus grandes pertes dans les cultures de lin. Les PGPR (Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria) sont des bactéries réputées pour leurs capacités à améliorer la croissance et le développement des plantes, mais également pour leur pouvoir compétiteur au sein de la rhizosphère et leur aptitude à induire une réponse immunitaire chez les plantes. Parallèlement, l’utilisation de SDP (Stimulateur des Défenses des Plantes), molécules capables d’éliciter les mécanismes de défenses des plantes est une autre alternative pour limiter l’utilisation des pesticides. Dans le cadre de ce projet mené sur deux variétés de lin, Aramis et Mélina, il a pu être montré que Fol induisait un remodelage de la paroi au niveau des racines et des tiges, impliquant les hémicelluloses et les pectines, seulement deux jours après inoculation avec le champignon. L’utilisation de la souche ATCC 6633 de Bacillus subtilis comme agent de biocontrôle a permis de réduire de façon significative l’apparition des symptômes de la fusariose. Il a également été montré qu’en plus d’avoir un effet fongicide sur Fol, cette bactérie est capable d’induire l’expression de deux gènes de défense (Pathogenesis-Related) codant pour une β-(1,3)-glucanase (PR-2) et codant pour une chitinase-like (CTL-10), de gènes impliqués dans la voie des phénylpropanoïdes (PHENYLALANINE AMONIA LYASES, PAL-3 et PAL-4) et dans le remodelage pariétal (PECTIN METHYLESTERASE-3, PME-3) au niveau racinaire. Des analyses biochimiques ont également permis de montrer que B. subtilis provoque des modifications se traduisant par un renforcement pariétal au niveau des tiges chez les deux variétés. Enfin, l’association de la PGPR avec une molécule élicitrice (pregnénolone sulfate) a eu un effet synergique sur l’expression de gènes de défense. / In France, flax (Linum usitatissumum) is a principal fibers crop. Fusarium oxysporum f sp lini (Fol), a soil-borne fungus, is responsible for the major losses in crop yield. PGPR (Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria) are known for their abilities to promote plant growth and health. These bacteria are also good competitors in the rhizosphere and can induce a plant defense response. The use of compounds able to elicit plant defense mechanisms is also an alternative to limit the use of pesticides. In this project, it has been shown that F. oxysporum f. sp. lini induces only two days after inoculation cell wall remodeling in the root and the stem involving hemicelluloses and pectins on two flax varieties, Aramis and Mélina, . The use of the Bacillus subtilis strain ATCC 6633 as biocontrol agent significantly reduced fusarium wilt appearance. In addition to its antifungal effect against Fol, this bacteria is able to induce the expression of two Pathogenesis-Related genes coding for a β-(1,3)-glucanase (PR-2) and a chitinase-like (CTL-10), genes involved in the phenylpropanoid pathway (PHENYLALANINE AMONIA LYASES, PAL-3 and PAL-4) and also in cell wall remodeling (PECTIN METHYLESTERASE-3, PME-3) in the root. Biochemical analyses show that B. subtilis causes modifications resulting in cell wall reinforcement in the stem in both varieties. Finally, the association of B. subtilis with an elicitor (pregnenolone sulfate) had a synergistic effect on the expression of defense-related genes.

De nombreux exemples de matériaux composites obtenus par l’association de fibres végétales et de polymères ont permis des allègements conséquents de structures dans divers domaines d’application. Cependant, la question demeure quant de la durabilité de ces pièces en service, essentiellement par manque de connaissances sur le vieillissement des fibres végétales, sur leurs interactions avec la matrice polymère et sur le comportement hydrothermique des composites biosourcés au cours du temps. Dans cette étude, nous avons étudié les cinétiques et mécanismes de sorption du matériau composite afin d’appréhender son comportement hydrique lors des vieillissements hydrothermiques par immersion dans l’eau à 23°C et 70°C. Cette étude a mis en évidence l’influence des fibres végétales sur les grandeurs caractéristiques de l’absorption en eau du matériau composite : forte prise en eau, gonflement anisotrope. Elle a également permis l’identification des mécanismes de dégradation des fibres de lin ; le rôle très nocif des résidus d’écorce rappelle l’importance du rouissage et du défibrage sur les performances de ces fibres. L’étude du comportement des constituants et du composite confrontés à des vieillissements hydrothermiques a ensuite été entreprise afin d’identifier et quantifier l’influence de chacun des matériaux constitutifs, ainsi que leur synergie. Il en ressort que la détérioration des fibres de lin est la principale cause de l’abattement des propriétés mécaniques du matériau composite. Si une immersion à 23°C pendant 70 jours n’a que peu d’effet sur les propriétés mécaniques, l’élévation de la température à 70°C induit des endommagements importants dès 14 jours d’immersion. La destruction des parois cellulaires et la dégradation des interfaces fibre/matrice sous l’effet de la présence d’eau détériorent le transfert de charge matrice/fibre. La corrélation entre les vieillissements accélérés et naturel a fait ressortir une similitude entre le maintien pendant 70 jours dans l’eau à 23°C et l’exposition aux conditions naturelles pendant 24 mois ; l’immersion à 70°C s’avère trop sévère. Une solution d’amélioration serait d’accentuer le rouissage des fibres afin de supprimer davantage les composés pectiques de la lamelle mitoyenne et de la paroi primaire. L’élimination de ces composés facilement hydrolysables par l’eau permettrait de prétendre à une meilleure qualité de l’interface fibres/matrice tout au long du vieillissement. / A great number of plant fiber – reinforced polymer composites allowed substantial lightening of structures in various fields of application. However, the question remains about the durability of these parts in service, mainly for lack of knowledge about the aging of plant fibers, their interactions with the polymer matrix and the hydrothermal behavior of biosourced composites over time. In this work, water absorption mechanisms and kinetics by the composite material are studied in order to understand the hydric behavior during hydrothermal aging by immersion in deionized water at 23°C or 70°C. The results show that water absorption by the composite is characterized by a high water uptake and an anisotropic swelling. It also allowed the identification of the degradation mechanisms of flax fibers; the very harmful role of bark residues recalls the importance of retting and decortication on the performance of these fibers.The investigation of the behaviors of the constituents and the composite under hydrothermal aging was then undertaken with the aim to identify and quantify the influence of each on the constituent materials, as well as their synergy. It shows that the deterioration of the flax fibers is the main cause of the reduction of the mechanical properties of the composite. If immersion at 23 ° C for 70 days has little effect on the mechanical properties, raising the temperature to 70 ° C induces significant damage from 14 days of immersion. The destruction of the cell walls and the degradation of the fiber/matrix interfaces due to water deteriorate the load transfer efficiency by the fiber/matrix interface. The correlation between accelerated and natural aging showed a similarity between holding for 70 days in water at 23 ° C and exposure to natural conditions for 24 months; immersion at 70 ° C is too severe. An improvement solution would be to increase the retting of the fibers in order to further remove the pectic compounds from the middle lamella and the primary wall. The elimination of these compounds easily hydrolysable by water would claim to a better quality of the fiber / matrix interface throughout aging.

Cette thèse présente l’élaboration de thermodurcissables et de composites biosourcés synthétisés à partir d’huiles végétales époxydées (lin et soja) et d’alcool furfurylique (FA). La première partie de ce travail concerne l’étude de la polymérisation du FA en polyalcool furfurylique (PFA) (i) en solvants protiques polaires, (ii) en combinaison avec le bois et (iii) suivant l’ajout de nouveaux amorceurs. En solvant, les changements de structures observés ont été reliés aux propriétés thermomécaniques. Une autre modification de structure du PFA a été obtenue grâce au 2,5 diméthylfurane. Ce travail a permis d’obtenir une meilleure compréhension de la réactivité du FA au sein du bois et montre que les composites bois/PFA ont une densité et une résistance plus élevées que leurs homologues non modifiés. Enfin, l’amorçage des réactions du FA par l’acide lévulinique ou par le p-toluène sulfonylhydrazine permet de proposer deux nouveaux amorceurs, respectivement biosourcé et « latent ». La seconde partie de ce travail concerne l’élaboration d’une résine époxyde totalement biosourcée et synthétisée à partir d’huiles végétales époxydées. L’huile de lin et de soja ont été chacune copolymérisées avec un acide dicarboxylique. Un premier travail fondamental a consisté à corréler la réactivité de copolymérisation avec les structures des polymères obtenus puis à établir le lien avec les propriétés thermomécaniques. Ensuite, des nanocomposites ont été synthétisés à partir de ces résines époxydes et de sépiolite. Les différentes voies de dispersion et de modification de la sépiolite mises en œuvre conduisent à des niveaux de dispersion différents de la nanocharge au sein de la matrice. / The work presents the elaboration of biobased thermosets and composites synthesized from epoxidized vegetable oils (linseed and soybean) and furfuryl alcohol (FA). A first area of research focused on the study of the polymerisation of FA into polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFA) (i) in protic polar solvents, (ii) in combination with wood and (iii) in the presence of new reaction initiators. In presence of solvents, the observed structural changes have been linked to the thermomechanical properties. Another PFA structure modification was obtained with 2,5 dimethylfuran. This work allowed a better understanding of the reactivity of FA within the wood and shows that the obtained wood/PFA composites have higher density and resistance than their non-modified equivalents. Finally, the initiation of FA polymerization by levulinic acid and p-toluene sulfonylhydrazine, respectively biobased and « latent » initiators has been studied. The second topic of thesis concerns a new type of fully bio-based epoxy resin synthesized from epoxidized vegetable oils. Linseed and soybean oils have both been copolymerized with a dicarboxylic acid as curing agent. A first fundamental work was to correlate the reactivity of copolymerization with the polymer structure and to link them with thermomechanical properties. The obtained thermosets have been used to prepare nanocomposites with sepiolite. Different methods of dispersion and/or modification of sepiolite conduct to diverse morphologies of nanofiller dispersions into the matrix.

Negli ultimi 70 anni, c'è stato un incremento degli studi e ricerche inglesi sulle collocazioni (Firth 1957; Hoey, 2005; Moon, 1998b; Sinclair 1991; 2004; Stubbs, 1996; 2001), i quali hanno evidenziato che la fraseologia è pervasiva alla lingua (Altenberg, 1998; Biber et al., 1999; Cowie, 1991; 1992; Howarth; 1998). Questo indica anche che una buona padronanza delle collocazioni è necessaria se i discenti mirano a raggiungere una fluidità simile a quella di un nativo nella L2. Infatti, la ricerca sulla produzione di linguaggio formulaico da parte degli apprendenti ha dimostrato che le collocazioni sono essenziali nell'acquisizione della lingua seconda (Cowie, 1998; Pawley & Syder, 1983; Peters, 1983) e sono una componente chiave per lo sviluppo della "fluency" (Ellis, 2002; 2003; Ellis et al., 2015; Howarth, 1998). Nonostante il maggior numero di studi sulle collocazioni, la maggior parte degli studiosi si è concentrata su dati scritti e su un insieme ristretto di combinazioni, come le collocazioni verbo + sostantivo. La scarsa disponibilità di corpora orali di discenti e la maggiore attenzione per le sequenze formulaiche più soggette a errori hanno portato i ricercatori a trascurare collocazioni come avverbio + aggettivo. L'intensificazione è una parte intricata dell'apprendimento delle lingue straniere (Lorenz, 1999) e merita ulteriore attenzione, soprattutto per quanto riguarda i dati parlati, che riflettono meglio il linguaggio dei discenti (Myles, 2015). Il presente lavoro indaga le collocazioni di avverbi + aggettivi in un corpus parlato di recente compilazione di studenti italiani avanzati di inglese L2. La tesi adotta un approccio di Analisi Interlinguistica Contrastiva (Granger, 1998) per verificare se: a) ci sono differenze tra la produzione di collocazioni degli studenti italiani di inglese rispetto ai coetanei madrelingua; b) ci sono differenze tra le collocazioni prodotti dagli studenti italiani e quelle dei madrelingua in termini di modelli sintattici e significato lessicale; c) la congruenza della L1 ha un effetto di trasferimento sulla produzione da parte dei discenti di collocazioni poco frequenti e/o non attestate. Per rispondere alle tre domande di ricerca, sono state condotte analisi quantitative e qualitative sull'Italian Spoken Learner Corpus (ISLC) e sul corpus gemello di LINDSEI, LOCNEC. LOCNEC è stato utilizzato come corpus di riferimento di madrelingua per il suo alto livello di comparabilità con ISLC. Per le analisi quantitative, è stato seguito l'approccio di Durrant e Schmitt (2009) per il calcolo dei punteggi delle misure di associazione delle collocazioni (t-score e MI) sulla base del corpus di riferimento BNC e le collocazioni sono state poi divise in tre categorie in base al loro punteggio: collocazioni (t-score e MI maggiore o uguale a 2 e 3 rispettivamente), collocazioni infrequenti/non attestate (t-score e MI non disponibili a causa dell'infrequenza), collocazioni in area grigia (t-score e MI inferiore a 2 e 3 rispettivamente). I test T-test e Wilcoxon rank sum test sono stati utilizzati sulle collocazioni estratte da ISLC e LOCNEC e sono state calcolate le dimensioni degli effetti. Inoltre, i test sono stati impiegati per valutare i valori medi individuali di t-score e MI degli studenti e dei madrelingua. Per quanto riguarda le analisi qualitative, è stato impiegato uno schema a tre livelli per analizzare due serie di collocazioni: la prima serie comprende 11 collocazioni con t-score e MI maggiore uguale a 2 e 3 rispettivamente e una frequenza di 5 nell'ISLC; la seconda serie comprende 9 collocazioni infrequenti/non attestate con una frequenza maggiore o uguale a 2 nell'ISLC. Seguendo lo schema, i due set di collocazioni estratti sia dall'ISLC sia dal LOCNEC sono stati analizzati tenendo conto del loro background collocativo (etimologia, livello CEFR, congruenza L1), delle variabili del discente (sesso, esperienza di soggiorno all'estero, corso universitario, altre lingue), e delle variabili testuali (funzione attributiva vs predicativa dell'aggettivo, pronomi vs it-sentences, tempo verbale, affermativo vs negativo, connotazione positiva vs negativa). I risultati dei test statistici sono stati tutti significativi con effect size medio-grandi e, insieme alle analisi qualitative, hanno indicato che: gli studenti italiani di inglese producono un minor numero di collocazioni; un maggior numero di non-collocazioni; le loro combinazioni sono meno collocative di quelle dei madrelingua (ovvero, i loro punteggi di misura delle associazioni sono in media più bassi di quelli dei nativi); non ci sono differenze marcate in termini di modelli lessico-grammaticali tra le collocazioni degli studenti e quelle dei madrelingua, ma gli studenti tendono ad assegnare alle loro collocazioni funzioni più creative dal punto di vista pragmatico; non è stata trovata alcuna prova di trasferimento L1 (negativo) in relazione alla produzione da parte dei discenti di collocazioni infrequenti/non attestate, sostenendo così ulteriormente la conclusione precedente. I risultati corroborano ulteriormente la letteratura sulle collocazioni prodotte dai discenti e aggiungono un altro tassello al puzzle della lingua parlata: il ritardo collocazionale, cioè lo sviluppo più lento delle prestazioni di produzione di collocazioni, può essere trovato anche nei dati parlati e i discenti sembrano anche produrre meno collocazioni identificate da punteggio t-score. Questo ha due importanti, anche se semplici, implicazioni: che gli studenti dovrebbero probabilmente essere esposti a più input di lingua parlata, e che le teorie di acquisizione della lingua seconda potrebbero utilmente rivedere i processi di acquisizione fraseologica degli studenti nel contesto EFL. Un'altra scoperta è relativa ai modelli lessico-grammaticali delle collocazioni degli studenti non erano marcatamente diversi da quelli dei madrelingua, ma erano meno vari e mostravano una creatività pragmatica. Questo potrebbe informare gli studiosi sui potenziali processi di fossilizzazione (Selinker, 1972) nella fraseologia e/o sulle strategie di semplificazione o di evitamento (Farghal & Obiedat, 1995). Infine, anche se gli studi tradizionali hanno trovato che la congruenza L1 gioca un ruolo chiave nella produzione di collocazioni (cfr. Bahns, 1993; Granger, 1998b; Nesselhauf, 2005; Wang, 2016), nessuna prova di congruenza L1 è stata trovata per quanto riguarda i dati parlati, il che è un'interessante controprova. Nel complesso, questa tesi ha sottolineato che la produzione di collocazioni, sia quantitativamente sia pragmaticamente, è in ritardo rispetto alla competenza collocazionale e, sebbene questa linea possa essere molto sottile e non significativa nei testi scritti, il divario si allarga nella lingua parlata. / In the last 70 years, there has been an increase in English studies on collocations (Firth 1957; Hoey, 2005; Moon, 1998; Sinclair 1991; 2004; Stubbs, 1996; 2001) and research which have documented that phraseology is pervasive to language (Altenberg, 1998; Biber et al., 1999; Cowie, 1991; 1992; Howarth; 1998). This also indicates that a good command of collocations is needed if learners aim to achieve native-like fluency in the L2. Indeed, research on learner production of formulaic language has shown that collocations are essential in the acquisition of second language (Cowie, 1998; Pawley & Syder, 1983; Peters, 1983) and are a key component for the development of fluency (Ellis, 2002; 2003; Ellis et al., 2015; Howarth, 1998). Despite the surge in studies on collocations, the majority of scholars have focused on written data and on a restricted set of combinations, such as verb + noun collocations. The poor availability of spoken learner corpora and the more error-prone formulaic sequences have led researchers to neglect collocations such as adverb + adjective. Intensification is an intricate part of foreign language learning (Lorenz, 1999) and deserves further attention, especially as regards spoken data, which is a better reflection of learner language (Myles, 2015). The present work investigates adverb + adjective collocations in a newly compiled spoken learner corpus of advanced Italian learners of English L2. The thesis adopts a Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis (Granger, 1998) approach to verify whether: a) there are any differences between the collocation production of Italian learners of English compared to native-speaker peers; b) there are any differences between the Italian learners’ collocations and the native speakers’ in terms of syntactic patterns and lexical meaning; c) L1 congruency has a transfer effect on the learner production of infrequent and/or unattested collocations. In order to address the three overarching research questions, quantitative and qualitative analyses were carried out on the Italian Spoken Learner Corpus (ISLC) and the sister corpus of LINDSEI, LOCNEC. LOCNEC was used as the native-speaker reference corpus for its high level of comparability to ISLC. For the quantitative analyses, Durrant and Schmitt’s (2009) approach was followed for the calculation of the collocation’s association measure scores (t-score and MI) based on the large reference corpus BNC and the collocations were then divided into three categories based on their score: collocations (t-score and MI equal or greater than 2 and 3 respectively), infrequent/unattested collocations (t-score and MI scores unavailable due to infrequency), grey area collocations (t-score and MI lower than 2 and 3 respectively). T-tests and Wilcoxon rank sum tests were computed on the collocations extracted from ISLC and LOCNEC and effect sizes were calculated. In addition, the tests were employed to assess the average individual t-score and MI values of learners and native speakers. As regards the qualitative analyses, a three-fold scheme was employed to analyse two sets of collocations: the first set comprises 11 collocations with t-score and MI equal or greater than 2 and 3 respectively and a frequency of equal or greater than 5 in the ISLC; the second set includes 9 infrequent/unattested collocations with a frequency equal or greater than 2 in ISLC. Following the scheme, the two sets of collocations extracted from both ISLC and LOCNEC were analysed by taking into account their collocational background (etymology, CEFR level, L1 congruence), the learner variables (gender, stay-abroad experience, university course, other languages), and the text variables (attributive vs predicative function of the adjective, pronouns vs it-sentences, tense, affirmative vs negative, positive vs negative connotation). The results of the statistical tests were all significant with medium to large effect sizes and, together with the qualitative analyses, indicated that: Italian learners of English produce a fewer number of collocations; a higher number of non-collocations; their combinations are less collocational than native speakers’ (i.e., their association measure scores as on average lower than the natives’); there are no marked differences in terms of lexico-grammatical patterns between the learners’ collocations and the native speakers’, but the learners tend to assign more pragmatically creative functions to their collocations; no evidence of L1 (negative) transfer was found in relation to the learners’ production of infrequent/unattested collocations, thus further supporting the previous finding. The findings further corroborate the literature on learners’ collocations and add another piece to the puzzle of spoken language: collocational lag, that is the slower development of collocation performance, can also be found in spoken data and learners also seem to produce fewer t-score collocations. This has two important, though simple, implications: that learners should probably be exposed to more spoken language input, and that second language acquisition theories might usefully review phraseological acquisition processes of EFL learners. Another finding is that the lexico-grammatical patterns of learners’ collocations were not markedly different from native speakers’, but they were less varied and displayed pragmatic creativity. This could inform scholars about potential fossilisation processes (Selinker, 1972) in phraseology and/or simplification or avoidance strategies (Farghal & Obiedat, 1995). Lastly, although mainstream studies have found that L1 congruency plays a role in the production of collocations (cf. Bahns, 1993; Granger, 1998b; Nesselhauf, 2005; Wang, 2016), no evidence of L1 congruency was found as regards spoken data, which is an interesting counter-finding. Overall, this thesis has underlined that collocation production, both quantitatively and pragmatically, lags behind collocation competence and, although this line may be very thin and not significant in written texts, the gap widens in spoken language.

La présence des artistes chinois en France durant la première moitié du XXe siècle s’est fixée de manière exceptionnelle et durable à l’École des beaux-arts de Paris, au point qu’on puisse, à partir du dépouillement des archives nationales (cote AJ52), parler d’un « phénomène chinois à l’École des beaux-arts de Paris ». Ce phénomène a engagé plus de 130 élèves chinois inscrits dans les galeries et dans les ateliers de peinture et de sculpture entre 1914 et 1955. Aussi, cette présence à l’École des beaux-arts constitua une caractéristique essentielle du mouvement des artistes chinois en France et plus largement en Occident. À ce titre, ce phénomène a joué un rôle important dans l’évolution du champ artistique chinois moderne, sur le plan social,technique et artistique à travers un processus de « transfert culturel ». Ce phénomène fut possible grâce à une relation privilégiée qui exista entre la France et la Chine au début du XXe siècle (le « dialogue entre deux républiques »). Mais l’École des beaux-arts fut aussi un espace de concurrence entre les différentes tendances artistiques modernes chinoises dont beaucoup des chefs de file passèrent par les ateliers de l’École. Parmi eux,Xu Beihong (1895-1953) occupa une place particulière car il développa une stratégie sociale et artistique cohérente qui posait comme fondamentales la formation artistique académique et l’expérience à l’École des beaux-arts de Paris. Cette expérience enrichie par la maîtrise du dessin académique, de l’anatomie artistique et de la peinture d’histoire, fut orientée vers une production inédite à bien des égards en Chine, à l’huile et à l’encre. Aussi, après une période consensuelle des années 1910 aux années 1920, il semble qu’à partir des années 1930, le phénomène chinois à l’École des beaux-arts de Paris alimenta essentiellement le pôle éducatif et artistique de Xu Beihong en France et en Chine. Ce phénomène chinois à l’École des beaux-arts de Paris,attaché à la formation académique et à l’art académique français, fut un élément dynamique dans l’élaboration de la modernité artistique en Chine au XXe siècle. / The presence of Chinese artists in France during the first half of the Twentieth Century was an exceptional and enduring phenomenon at the National School of Fine Arts of Paris (École nationale des Beaux-Arts de Paris). Based on the analysis of the documents from the French National Archives, the number of Chinese students was so substantial that it deserves to be called as the 'Chinese phenomenon at the École des Beaux-Arts'. Between 1914 and 1955, more than 130 Chinese students enrolled at the 'Galeries' (preparatory training in drawing) and at the painting and sculpture studios called 'Ateliers'. This situation at the École des Beaux-Arts essentially reflected the movement of Chinese artists in France and more widely in the West. It played an important role in the changing field of the modern Chinese art, socially, technically and artistically ,through a process of "Cultural Transfer" and was made possible by the privileged relationship between France and China at the beginning of the Twentieth Century (the "Dialogue between two Republics"). Nevertheless, the École des Beaux-Arts also became an area of competition between the various modern Chinese artistic tendencies, as many leaders of different groups studied at the workshops of the École des Beaux-Arts. Amongthem, Xu Beihong (1895-1953), who developed a coherent social and artistic strategies, was especially significant. Xu received fundamental academic artistic training at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Xu’s experience, enriched by his mastery of academic drawing, artistic anatomy and history painting, made his artistic production unprecedented in many respects of Chinese art, in oil and in ink. In addition, after a consensual period from the 1910s to the 1920s, it seems that from the 1930s, the Chinese phenomenon at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris mainly fostered Xu’s central position in educational and artistic camps inFrance and China. This Chinese phenomenon at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, which is attached to academic training and to French academic art, was a dynamic element in the elaboration of artistic modernityin Twentieth Century China.

L'obiettivo del presente lavoro è quello di esaminare criticamente le prospettive teoriche più note sul problema delle relazioni tra sviluppo concettuale del bambino ed acquisizione della prima lingua. Per quanto il lavoro si concentri in particolare sullo sviluppo della componente lessicale, ovvero sul legame tra concetti e apprendimento delle parole con cui gli stessi vengono codificati, verranno necessariamente trattati anche alcuni aspetti relativi alla competenza morfologica e sintattica. Dopo aver presentato sinteticamente le principali teorie proposte nell'ambito della linguistica acquisizionale e della psicologia dello sviluppo, procederemo ad una problematizzazione e discussione dei punti critici delle stesse alla luce dei risultati ottenuti in sede sperimentale negli ultimi anni. Partendo dalla consapevolezza che nell'ambito della linguistica, forse ancor più che in altre discipline, il contrasto tra impostazioni teoriche diverse si traduce spesso in discrepanze significative nell'interpretazione degli stessi dati empirici, abbiamo cercato di dare lo stesso spazio ai vari orientamenti teorici. L'obiettivo di questa tesi, infatti, non è quello di dare giudizi di merito sulla validità di una teoria in quanto tale rispetto ad un'altra, quanto di discutere in modo trasversale i nodi più problematici delle varie teorie e le implicazioni delle stesse. Questo intento è particolarmente evidente nelle conclusioni della tesi, strutturate intorno ad una serie di domande di ricerca. / This work provides a critical overview of the major theoretical perspectives on the relationships between conceptual development and first language acquisition. While our focus is on lexical development (ie. on the relation between learning a word and acquiring the relevant concept), we will also touch on some aspects which pertains more specifically to morphological and syntactical development. After briefly introducing the major theories developed in the field of first language acquisition and developmental psychology, we will discuss them in the light of experimental data collected in recent years. As the same empirical findings tend to be interpreted in completely different ways, in our work we tried to give voice to authors supporting different views. Our goal is not to assess the merits of these theores as such, but to take this comparison as an opportunity to discuss the implications and issues thereof. This will be particularly clear in the Conclusions of our work, which are structured as a series of research questions.