Automatic text summarization can efficiently and effectively save users¡¦ time while reading text documents. The objective of automatic text summarization is to extract essential sentences that cover almost all the concepts of a document so that users are able to comprehend the ideas the document tries to address by simply reading through the corresponding summary. This research focuses on developing a hybrid automatic text summarization approach, KCS, to enhancing the quality of summaries. This approach basically consists of two major components: first, it employs the K-mixture probabilistic model to calculate term weights in a statistical sense; it then identifies the term relationship between nouns and nouns as well as nouns and verbs, which results in the connective strength (CS) of nouns. With the connective strengths available scores of sentences can be calculated and ranked to be extracted. We conduct three experiments to justify the proposed approach. The quality of summary is examined by its capability of increasing accuracy of text classification,while the classifier employed, the Naïve Bayes classifier, is kept the same through all experiments. The results show that the K-mixture model is more contributive to document classification than traditional TFIDF weighting scheme. It, however, is still no better than CS, a more complex linguistic-based approach. More importantly, our proposed approach, KCS, performs best among all approaches considered. It implies that KCS can extract more representative sentences from the document and its feasibility in text summarization applications is thus justified.

Nos réflexions s’inscrivent dans le sillage des travaux sur l’utilisation des supports filmiques en classe de langue et essaient de proposer de nouvelles pistes en menant une réflexion sur l’équilibre entre les objectifs d’apprentissage de la langue et des études filmiques. Nous allons pour cela utiliser principalement les apports des recherches sur l’approche par tâches et, dans une moindre mesure, sur « l’enseignement à contenu intégré », afin d’explorer les points de convergence entre les objectifs propres aux deux disciplines. Il s’agit ici d’exposer une démarche renouvelée pour l’apprentissage de la langue permettant aux étudiants d’acquérir des connaissances d’analyse filmique et d’histoire du cinéma. Les études filmiques impliquent en effet d’apprendre à analyser, c’est-à-dire à décomposer un tout en ses éléments constituants : identifier et sélectionner les éléments significatifs grâce à des savoirs préalables, hiérarchiser des informations collectées, et mettre en relation des indices formels et contextuels pour aboutir à la genèse de la construction du sens. Le même type d’opérations mentales régit le processus de compréhension en langue : établir des liens entre forme et sens et mettre des savoirs au service des analyses. Les étapes de l’analyse filmique se rapprochent ainsi des stratégies de réception en langue. Enfin, l’analyse de séquence, exercice privilégié des études filmiques, peut donner lieu à une grande variété de tâches de production. / Our reflections fit in the wake of work on the use of the filmic supports in class of language and try to propose new tracks by carrying out a reflection on balance between the objectives of training of the language and the filmic studies. We will use mainly the contributions for that of research on the approach by tasks and, to a lesser extent, on “teaching with integrated contents”, in order to explore the convergence points between the objectives specific to the two disciplines. It is a question here of exposing a approach renewed for the training of the language making it possible to the students to acquire knowledge of filmic analysis and history of the cinema. The filmic studies indeed imply to learn how to analyze, i.e. to break up a whole into its constituent elements: to identify and select the significant elements thanks to preliminary knowledge, to treat on a hierarchical basis collected information, and to connect formal and contextual indices to lead to the genesis of the construction of the direction. The same type of mental operations governs the process of comprehension in language: to establish links between form and direction and to put knowledge at the service of the analyses. The stages of the filmic analysis thus approach the strategies of reception in language. Lastly, the analysis of sequence, privileged exercise of the filmic studies, can cause a large variety of tasks of production.

La présente recherche doctorale traite des constructions causatives dans une perspective développementale et contrastive. Elle poursuit un double objectif. D'une part, démontrer que la complexité morphosyntaxique des mécanismes causatifs joue un rôle important dans le processus de leur acquisition par les enfants. D'autre part, prendre en considération plusieurs habiletés langagières (production, compréhension, imitation) pour explorer pleinement les divers niveaux de maitrise des constructions causatives. Les deux langues que nous étudions – le français et le bulgare – n'utilisent pas les mêmes mécanismes pour encoder la notion de causativité. Le français privilégie le prédicat complexe faire + Vinf, mais accepte également quelques causatifs lexicaux (nourrir X). Le bulgare fait appel à trois procédés : lexical (xranja X – nourrir X), morphologique (le préfixe ‘raz-' : razsmivam X – faire rire X) et périphrastique (karam X da V présent – inciter X à ce que V présent). Un total de 113 francophones (71 enfants et 42 adultes) et de 96 bulgarophones (56 enfants et 40 adultes) participent à cette étude contrastive ; tous sont des locuteurs natifs monolingues. Les enfants sont répartis en trois tranches d'âge (3-4 ans, 4-5 ans et 5-6 ans) et ils participent à trois tâches expérimentales (production, compréhension, imitation). Les adultes sont enregistrés uniquement en tâche de production. Notre recherche aboutit à quelques résultats intéressants. Premièrement, entre 3 et 6 ans, la conceptualisation de la causativité ne pose pas de problèmes particuliers aux enfants francophones et bulgarophones ; ils comprennent les mécanismes causatifs de leur langue. Deuxièmement, l'ordre d'acquisition des formes causatives est étroitement lié à leur degré de complexité morphosyntaxique. Dans les deux langues étudiées, les causatifs lexicaux sont complètement maitrisés par les enfants. En revanche, malgré son caractère compact et sa simplicité formelle, le causatif morphologique du bulgare semble apparaitre tardivement. La présence d'erreurs par surgénéralisation chez les enfants âgés de 5 à 6 ans révèle que l'acquisition de ce mécanisme causatif n'est pas achevée. La construction périphrastique karam X da V présent, quant à elle, peut être considérée comme maitrisée, puisqu'entre 4 et 5 ans, les habiletés des enfants bulgares à la produire sont déjà très proches de l'usage adulte. Enfin, le prédicat complexe faire + Vinf est en voie de stabilisation ; les enfants français doivent faire quelques ajustements au niveau de l'intégrité de la séquence faire + Vinf et de l'usage de l'argument causataire (sa fonction syntaxique et sa présence dans les énoncés). Troisièmement, le rappel de la structure des mécanismes causatifs en tâche d'imitation améliore les performances productives des enfants. En conclusion, par la prise en compte de trois habiletés langagières, cette étude apporte un éclairage dans la recherche sur les constructions causatives. Dans l'esprit du Modèle de compétition et des approches basées sur l'usage, notre travail valide également la pertinence de trois principaux facteurs déterminant l'ordre d'acquisition des unités linguistiques : 1/ fréquence dans l'input (ou disponibilité) ; 2/ fiabilité (ou spécialisation dans l'expression d'une fonction communicative) ; 3/ complexité (formelle et conceptuelle). / The present study investigates the causative constructions from a developmental and cross-linguistic perspective. On the one hand, it aims to show the important role of the morphosyntactic complexity of causative mechanisms during language acquisition. On the other hand, it aims to examine different language skills (production, comprehension, imitation) in order to explore various levels of mastery of the causative constructions in two languages, French and Bulgarian. The two languages under investigation, French and Bulgarian, do not use the same mechanisms to express causativity. French uses the faire + Vinf complex predicate and some lexical causatives (nourrir X – feed X). In Bulgarian, the causativity is expressed using three mechanisms: lexical (xranja X – feed X), morphological (prefix ‘raz-': razsmivam X - make X laugh) and periphrastic construction (karam X da V pres – make that X + V pres). A total of 113 L1 French speakers (71 children and 42 adults) and 96 L1 Bulgarian speakers (56 children and 40 adults) took part in this cross-linguistic study. The children were divided into three age groups: 3-4, 4-5 and 5-6 years of age; they all participated in three experimental tasks (production, comprehension and imitation). The adults took part in one experimental task (production). Our cross-linguistic study provided some interesting results. Firstly, the conceptualization of causativity is equally understood in both languages, each child group globally understands the causative mechanisms available in their own language. Secondly, the order of acquisition of the causative mechanisms is tightly linked to its degree of morphosyntactic complexity. In both languages, lexical causatives are already mastered by all the children groups. Surprisingly enough, in Bulgarian, the morphological causative appears to be a late language development, as children as old as 5 to 6 years produce overgeneralizations of this mechanism, that means it is not yet mastered. In the Bulgarian data, we found that the periphrastic construction is acquired between the ages of 4 to 5 years; the children of this age group already show an adult-like ability in producing this analytical causative mechanism. In the French data, we found that the production of the faire + Vinf complex predicate begins to stabilize; however, children have to adjust both the integrity of the faire + Vinf structure and the usage of the causee argument (its syntactic function and its presence in the utterance). Thirdly, in instances when the structure of causative mechanisms is present during the imitation task, the children's production is improved. In conclusion, by including various language skills (production, comprehension and imitation), this study brings a new perspective in investigating the causative constructions. Our research is also consistent with both the Competition model and the usage-based approaches; it validates the relevance of three major factors determining the order of acquisition of the linguistic structures: 1/ input frequency (or ‘cue availability'); 2/ cue reliability; 3/ formal and semantic complexity (or ‘cue cost').

O tema desta dissertação é o Funcionalismo, uma abordagem teórica dos Estudos da Tradução que tem em Hans J. Vermeer seu fundador e principal teorizador. Partimos de duas hipóteses de trabalho: por um lado, pressupomos que, a despeito dos relatos historiográficos que enfatizam, com razão, o seu caráter revolucionário, a teoria tenha dado continuidade a importantes princípios de teorias de tradução precedentes. Por outro lado, somos da opinião de que o alicerce teórico tenha sido construído ao longo da década de 1980. Os textos publicados no âmbito da Teoria Funcional de Tradução após esse período consistiriam, assim, na aplicação desses fundamentos teóricos a diversas ramificações da atividade de tradução. Com base nos textos de Reiss e Vermeer (1984), Holz-Mänttäri (1984) e Nord (1988), examinamos o processo de gênese da teoria e seu desenvolvimento ao longo nos anos de 1980, a partir do elenco de seus principais conceitos, com o objetivo de, por um lado, identificar rupturas e continuidades em relação a teorias antecessoras e, por outro, promover uma leitura crítica de textos funcionalistas, pautada em parâmetros bem definidos. Desse modo, adotamos para o presente estudo uma metodologia baseada em quatro etapas. Primeiramente, delimitamos o escopo do trabalho (período e hipóteses), na medida em que foi definido o corpus de análise principal. Posteriormente, descrevemos o contexto histórico, institucional e intelectual de emergência da Teoria Funcional, tendo-nos pautado primeiramente por relatos de testemunhos e crônicas desse tempo, advindos de fontes primárias e secundárias e, em seguida, com vistas à identificação, segundo parâmetros específicos, de conceitos caros a essas propostas, pela análise de textos teóricos anteriores à publicação dos componentes do corpus principal. Numa terceira etapa, lemos e analisamos as obras do corpus principal segundo os mesmos parâmetros utilizados para a análise dos predecessores teóricos, o que nos levou a um mapeamento do desenvolvimento dos conceitos- chave funcionalistas. Finalmente, contrastamos os conceitos funcionalistas e os conceitos defendidos por seus predecessores, o que nos permitiu identificar, com o uso de noções defendidas pela historiografia das ciências para a interpretação dos resultados, rupturas e continuidades entre as duas vertentes. Esse processo nos levou à constatação de que, no plano teórico, as mudanças trazidas pelo Funcionalismo estão, por um lado, em conformidade com o clima intelectual dos estudos sobre a tradução em curso naquele momento e, por outro lado, seguem uma tendência observável no desenvolvimento das próprias teorias pré-funcionalistas de tradução. Ainda assim, constatamos que a vertente teórica trouxe inestimável contribuição no sentido de redefinir o lugar da tradução na Alemanha. A principal ruptura provocada pelo Funcionalismo, fomos levados a concluir, teria sido num plano que não o teórico, qual seja, a constituição de uma disciplina dedicada à tradução na Alemanha Ocidental. Quanto ao desenvolvimento da Teoria Funcional em si, vimos confirmada a hipótese inicial de que ela estabeleceu suas bases ao longo dos anos 1980. O fato de Nord, membro da assim chamada Segunda Geração Funcionalista, utilizar-se especialmente do quadro teórico formulado por Vermeer e Holz-Mänttäri, fazendo por ajustar a retórica funcionalista a uma retórica menos revolucionária, é sinal de que chegara ao fim o momento de revolução, com a abordagem adentrando um estágio de ciência normal. / The topic of this thesis is Functionalism, a theoretical approach to Translation Studies which was founded by Hans J. Vermeer, its main theorist. We take two hypotheses as our starting point: on the one hand, we assume that, despite the historiographic studies that rightly emphasize the theorys revolutionary character, it remained in continuity with important theoretical principles of preceding theories. On the other hand, it is our opinion that the theoretical foundation of Functional Translation Studies was established during the 1980s. The essays published in the context of Functional Theory afterward, therefore, would focus on the application of these theoretical principles to the practice of translation in many areas. With reference to the works of Reiss and Vermeer (1984), Holz-Mänttäri (1984) and Nord (1988), we examine the process of the theorys formation and its developments during the 1980s, first determining its main concepts, aiming, on the one hand, to identify departures and continuities between this and prior theories; and, on the other hand, to promote a critical review of functionalistic texts, guided by well defined parameters. Thereby, we adopted a methodology for this study consisting of four stages: first, we established the scope of this study (period and hypothesis), by defining the body of functional theoretical essays to be analysed. Then, we described the historical, institutional and intellectual context in which the emergence of the functional approach took place. In doing so, we were guided firstly by narratives and testimonies of that time, gathered from primary and secondary sources, and also by the analysis of theoretical texts which came prior to the publication of the components of our main corpus, which involved the identification of concepts valuable to this theoretical proposition according to specific parameters. Later on, we read the components of our main body of theoretical texts, and analysed them according to the parameters laid out in the previous stage, thus mapping out the development of the key concepts of Functional Theory. Lastly, we contrasted functionalist concepts with those of the theorys predecessors and, as a result, we identified departures and continuities between both approaches, making use of premises from scientific historiography in order to interpret the results. We found that, in regards to the theoretical field, the changes brought about with Functionalism were, on the one hand, consistent with the intellectual climate of Translation Studies at that time; yet, on the other hand, functional theories followed an observable trend of the further development of the pre-functionalist translation theories. Furthermore, we established that the functional approach provided an invaluable contribution in redefining the place of translation theories in Germany. The most significant change brought about by the functional theory, according to our conclusions, took place outside the theoretical field: the emergence of a new discipline dedicated to translation studies in West Germany. Concerning the development of Functional Theory itself, we came to the conclusion that it, in fact, established its foundations during the 1980s, as we predicted. The fact that Nord, a member of the so-called second generation of functionalists among scholars, made use of the theoretical framework laid out especially by Vermeer and Holz-Mänttäri, yet adjusted the functionalist rhetoric to a less revolutionary one, is a sign that the first revolutionary phase was over, and that the approach was entering a new normal science stage.

Les unités phraséologiques représentent actuellement un objet d’étude commun à de nombreuses disciplines en science du langage. C’est dans ce cadre que s’inscrivent les travaux exposés dans la présente thèse. Adoptant une optique pluridisciplinaire alliant linguistique et psycholinguistique et impliquant l’approche comparative interlangue, nous étudions un phénomène linguistique complexe, le figement, en français et arabe dialectal tunisien. Nous proposons, en premier lieu, une description des expressions figées dans les deux langues mises en contraste, en repérant la typologie et le fonctionnement morphosyntaxique, lexical et sémantique de ces séquences. Notre attention se porte essentiellement sur les deux notions importantes dans l’étude du figement: la scalarité et l’iconicité. La méthodologie et les résultats d’une étude psycholinguistique et expérimentale réalisée auprès d’adultes francophones natifs et non natifs (des arabophones tunisiens apprenant le français L2) sont, en second lieu, exposés. L’intérêt est de déterminer si les facteurs linguistiques, degré de figement et iconicité, facilitent le traitement du langage figé au cours d’une tâche de mémorisation impliquant l’encodage et la reconnaissance des séquences figées du français. Une troisième expérience consiste en un test de familiarité qui examine l’effet des facteurs linguistiques, la scalarité et l’iconicité, ainsi que personnels, l’âge et le sexe, sur la connaissance des expressions figées du dialectal tunisien par des locuteurs arabophones natifs. Ces recherches psycholinguistiques, portant sur une population d’adultes, sont suivies d’une étude exploratoire sur l’émergence des expressions figées ou semi-figées chez les enfants. Ce travail suit la double problématique de l’émergence et de la comparaison interlangue. Nous comparons les productions de deux enfants: un enfant arabe tunisien et un enfant français. / The phraseological units currently represent a common object of study in many disciplines in language science. It is in this context that we present our work in this thesis. Adopting a multidisciplinary approach combining linguistic and psycholinguistic involving comparative cross-language approach, our goal is to study a complex linguistic phenomenon, the fixation, in French and Tunisian Arabic dialect. We propose, first, to contrast the fixed expressions in both languages by identifying the type and the morphosyntactic, lexical and semantic operation of these sequences. Our interest will focus on two important concepts in the study of the fixed sequences: scalarity and iconicity. The methodology and results of a psycholinguistic and experimental study among native and non-native francophone adults (Tunisian Arabic speakers learning French as second language) will be then exposed. Our aim is to determine whether language factors, scalarity and iconicity, facilitate the processing of fixed expressions during a memorization task involving the encoding and recognition of French frozen sequences. A third experiment is a test of familiarity that examines the effect of linguistic factors, scalarity and iconicity as well as personal factors such as; age and sex, on the knowledge of Tunisian dialect frozen sequences by Arabic native speakers. This psycholinguistic work carried on an adult population is followed by an exploratory study on the emergence of fixed and semi-fixed expressions in children communication. This work follows the dual problem of emergence and cross-language comparison. We compare the productions of two children: a Tunisian Arab child and a French child.

O tema desta dissertação é o Funcionalismo, uma abordagem teórica dos Estudos da Tradução que tem em Hans J. Vermeer seu fundador e principal teorizador. Partimos de duas hipóteses de trabalho: por um lado, pressupomos que, a despeito dos relatos historiográficos que enfatizam, com razão, o seu caráter revolucionário, a teoria tenha dado continuidade a importantes princípios de teorias de tradução precedentes. Por outro lado, somos da opinião de que o alicerce teórico tenha sido construído ao longo da década de 1980. Os textos publicados no âmbito da Teoria Funcional de Tradução após esse período consistiriam, assim, na aplicação desses fundamentos teóricos a diversas ramificações da atividade de tradução. Com base nos textos de Reiss e Vermeer (1984), Holz-Mänttäri (1984) e Nord (1988), examinamos o processo de gênese da teoria e seu desenvolvimento ao longo nos anos de 1980, a partir do elenco de seus principais conceitos, com o objetivo de, por um lado, identificar rupturas e continuidades em relação a teorias antecessoras e, por outro, promover uma leitura crítica de textos funcionalistas, pautada em parâmetros bem definidos. Desse modo, adotamos para o presente estudo uma metodologia baseada em quatro etapas. Primeiramente, delimitamos o escopo do trabalho (período e hipóteses), na medida em que foi definido o corpus de análise principal. Posteriormente, descrevemos o contexto histórico, institucional e intelectual de emergência da Teoria Funcional, tendo-nos pautado primeiramente por relatos de testemunhos e crônicas desse tempo, advindos de fontes primárias e secundárias e, em seguida, com vistas à identificação, segundo parâmetros específicos, de conceitos caros a essas propostas, pela análise de textos teóricos anteriores à publicação dos componentes do corpus principal. Numa terceira etapa, lemos e analisamos as obras do corpus principal segundo os mesmos parâmetros utilizados para a análise dos predecessores teóricos, o que nos levou a um mapeamento do desenvolvimento dos conceitos- chave funcionalistas. Finalmente, contrastamos os conceitos funcionalistas e os conceitos defendidos por seus predecessores, o que nos permitiu identificar, com o uso de noções defendidas pela historiografia das ciências para a interpretação dos resultados, rupturas e continuidades entre as duas vertentes. Esse processo nos levou à constatação de que, no plano teórico, as mudanças trazidas pelo Funcionalismo estão, por um lado, em conformidade com o clima intelectual dos estudos sobre a tradução em curso naquele momento e, por outro lado, seguem uma tendência observável no desenvolvimento das próprias teorias pré-funcionalistas de tradução. Ainda assim, constatamos que a vertente teórica trouxe inestimável contribuição no sentido de redefinir o lugar da tradução na Alemanha. A principal ruptura provocada pelo Funcionalismo, fomos levados a concluir, teria sido num plano que não o teórico, qual seja, a constituição de uma disciplina dedicada à tradução na Alemanha Ocidental. Quanto ao desenvolvimento da Teoria Funcional em si, vimos confirmada a hipótese inicial de que ela estabeleceu suas bases ao longo dos anos 1980. O fato de Nord, membro da assim chamada Segunda Geração Funcionalista, utilizar-se especialmente do quadro teórico formulado por Vermeer e Holz-Mänttäri, fazendo por ajustar a retórica funcionalista a uma retórica menos revolucionária, é sinal de que chegara ao fim o momento de revolução, com a abordagem adentrando um estágio de ciência normal. / The topic of this thesis is Functionalism, a theoretical approach to Translation Studies which was founded by Hans J. Vermeer, its main theorist. We take two hypotheses as our starting point: on the one hand, we assume that, despite the historiographic studies that rightly emphasize the theorys revolutionary character, it remained in continuity with important theoretical principles of preceding theories. On the other hand, it is our opinion that the theoretical foundation of Functional Translation Studies was established during the 1980s. The essays published in the context of Functional Theory afterward, therefore, would focus on the application of these theoretical principles to the practice of translation in many areas. With reference to the works of Reiss and Vermeer (1984), Holz-Mänttäri (1984) and Nord (1988), we examine the process of the theorys formation and its developments during the 1980s, first determining its main concepts, aiming, on the one hand, to identify departures and continuities between this and prior theories; and, on the other hand, to promote a critical review of functionalistic texts, guided by well defined parameters. Thereby, we adopted a methodology for this study consisting of four stages: first, we established the scope of this study (period and hypothesis), by defining the body of functional theoretical essays to be analysed. Then, we described the historical, institutional and intellectual context in which the emergence of the functional approach took place. In doing so, we were guided firstly by narratives and testimonies of that time, gathered from primary and secondary sources, and also by the analysis of theoretical texts which came prior to the publication of the components of our main corpus, which involved the identification of concepts valuable to this theoretical proposition according to specific parameters. Later on, we read the components of our main body of theoretical texts, and analysed them according to the parameters laid out in the previous stage, thus mapping out the development of the key concepts of Functional Theory. Lastly, we contrasted functionalist concepts with those of the theorys predecessors and, as a result, we identified departures and continuities between both approaches, making use of premises from scientific historiography in order to interpret the results. We found that, in regards to the theoretical field, the changes brought about with Functionalism were, on the one hand, consistent with the intellectual climate of Translation Studies at that time; yet, on the other hand, functional theories followed an observable trend of the further development of the pre-functionalist translation theories. Furthermore, we established that the functional approach provided an invaluable contribution in redefining the place of translation theories in Germany. The most significant change brought about by the functional theory, according to our conclusions, took place outside the theoretical field: the emergence of a new discipline dedicated to translation studies in West Germany. Concerning the development of Functional Theory itself, we came to the conclusion that it, in fact, established its foundations during the 1980s, as we predicted. The fact that Nord, a member of the so-called second generation of functionalists among scholars, made use of the theoretical framework laid out especially by Vermeer and Holz-Mänttäri, yet adjusted the functionalist rhetoric to a less revolutionary one, is a sign that the first revolutionary phase was over, and that the approach was entering a new normal science stage.

La question des emprunts lexicaux dans le Coran est l’une des premières questions linguistiques posées au commencement de la pensée linguistique arabe. Pourtant, cette question n’a pas connu le même développement qu’ont connu les autres questions linguistiques. C’est qu’elle était toujours un objet de désaccord entre les savants et les chercheurs ; certains ont nié la présence d’emprunts lexicaux dans le Coran, d’autres l’ont admise. Dans les études anciennes et contemporaines, nous avons pu distinguer deux approches: la première est d’ordre linguistique. Elle considère le Coran comme un texte langagier. En effet, les linguistes ont étudié les emprunts coraniques dans leurs caractères phonologiques, morphologiques, syntaxiques et sémantiques. Alors que la seconde est plutôt idéologique. Elle prend une position non objective, en niant complètement la présence d’emprunts lexicaux dans le Coran, ou en glorifiant une langue mère par des motivations nationalistes, religieuses, sociales et culturelles. Après avoir étudié le développement, l’interférence et l’interaction entre ces approches, nous avons proposé notre position sociolinguistique pour élaborer des critères d’identification de nature linguistique, référentielle et culturelle. Ces critères nous ont aidé à dégager deux corpus : le premier contient les emprunts coraniques et leurs langues sources, le deuxième comprend les unités lexicales que nous considérons comme des unités arabes. Ce travail nous a permis de mettre en lumière les motivations idéologiques qui peuvent influencer l’étude linguistique. De même il est un outil pour prendre conscience de la nécessité d’une révision critique des approches qui ont traité les emprunts lexicaux en général et les emprunts coraniques en particulier. / The issue of “lexical borrowings in The Quran” is one of the first issues that had emerged since the beginning of the Arabic linguistic thought. Unfortunately, this issue was fruitless compared to other linguistic researches, because it has always been a subject of a great polemic among ancient and modern Arabic and non Arabic scholars. Some denied the fact that The Quran contains lexical borrowings, others admitted it. Many scholars were pushed by ideological motivations such as religious, nationalist, social, cultural motivations, especially those who denied the phenomenon.In this work, we tried first to evoke main linguistic and extra- linguistic problems concerning lexical borrowing in general, and the study of this phenomenon in the Quran especially. Then, we studied the two main approaches: (1) ideological approach which denies the existence of lexical borrowings in the Quran, or which admits it and tries meanwhile to glorify some languages and dishonour some others, (linguistic approach and its phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic analyses. After studying different approaches and their development, interference and interaction, we have elaborated a socio-linguistic perspective associated with some linguistic, referential and cultural criteria which allowed us to distinguish between two types of quranic words: words that we consider as real lexical borrowings, and genuine Arabic words. This study does not only shed the light on some ideological motivations which have affected linguistic research, but it also provides a crucial critical review of borrowing studies.

L'objectif de cette recherche est la construction manuelle de ressources lexicales pour les noms composés grecs qui sont définis par la structure morphosyntaxique : Nom (E+Déterminant au génitif) Nom au génitif, notés N (E+DET:G) N:G (e.g. ζώνη ασφαλείας/ceinture de sécurité). Les ressources élaborées peuvent être utilisées pour leur reconnaissance lexicale automatique dans les textes écrits et dans d'autres applications du TAL. Notre travail s'inscrit dans la perspective de l'élaboration du lexique-grammaire général du grec moderne en vue de l'analyse automatique des textes écrits. Le cadre théorique et méthodologique de cette étude est celui du lexique-grammaire (M. Gross 1975, 1977), qui s'appuie sur la grammaire transformationnelle harisienne.Notre travail s'organise en cinq parties. Dans la première partie, nous délimitons l'objet de notre travail tout en essayant de définir la notion fondamentale qui régit notre étude, à savoir celle de figement. Dans la deuxième partie, nous présentons la méthodologie utilisée pour le recensement de nos données lexicales et nous étudions les phénomènes de variation observés au sein des noms composés de type N (E+DET:G) N:G. La troisième partie est consacrée à la présentation des différentes sous-catégories des N (E+DET:G) N:G identifiées lors de l'étape du recensement et à l'étude de leur structure lexicale interne. La quatrième partie porte sur l'étude syntaxico-sémantique des N (E+DET:G) N:G. Enfin, dans la cinquième partie, nous présentons les différentes méthodes de représentation formalisée que nous proposons pour nos données lexicales en vue de leur reconnaissance lexicale automatique dans les textes écrits. Des échantillons représentatifs des ressources élaborées sont présentés en Annexe / The object of this research is the manual construction of lexical resources for the Greek compound nouns defined by the following morphosyntactic structure : Noun (E+Determiner in genitive) Noun in genitive, (N (E+DET:G) N:G) (e.g. ζώνη ασφαλείας/safety belt). The elaborated resources may be used for their automatic recognition in written texts and other NLP applications. Our study is part of the general lexicon-grammar for Modern Greek in view of automatic processing of written texts. Our theoretical and methodological framework is that of lexicon-grammar (M. Gross 1975, 1977), based on the Transformational Grammar principles defined by Z. S. Harris. Our study is organised into five parts. In the first part, we give an overview of the core notion governing our research : the notions of (fixed) multiword expression (MWE). In the second part, we present the methodology used to collect our lexical data and we study the variation phenomena observed within the framework of the N (E+DET:G) N:G. The third part is dedicated to the presentation of the different N (E+DET:G) N:G categories identified in the listing phase qnd to the study of their lexical composition. The fourth concerns the syntactical and semantic study of the N (E+DET:G) N:G. Finally, the fifth part deals with the formal representation methods we propose for our lexical data in view of their lexical recognition in Greek written texts. Representative samples of the elaborated resources are illustrated in Appendix

Les modèles classiques d'enseignement de la langue ne permettent pas aux lycéens d'appréhender leurs écrits pour, selon les termes de Jacqueline Lafont-Terranova (2008) « produire, dans une situation donnée, le meilleur écrit possible ». À ce constat s’ajoute celui de la difficile évaluation de ces écrits par les enseignants, plus souvent correcteurs que lecteurs. La relecture de Saussure, Benveniste et Bakhtine permet d’aborder deux questions, en miroir l’une avec l’autre. Comment écrire un texte et y revenir pour l’améliorer ? Comment lire ce texte et accompagner le sujet-scripteur vers une amélioration compte tenu des conditions d’enseignement allouées ? À partir de l’analyse de manuscrits (brouillons, écrits intermédiaires et écrits-copies) d’élèves de seconde, le rapport à l’écrit des sujets-scripteurs est interrogé conjointement aux dits dispositifs réflexifs mis en place par l’enseignante. Au réalisé scriptural de l’élève répond un réalisé professionnel. L’activité de l’un ne se conçoit pas sans l’activité de l’autre. / The traditional models of language do not allow high school students to comprehend their writings to, in the words of Jacqueline Lafont-Terranova (2008) ‘‘produce, in a given situation, the best possible writing’’. To this conclusion is added the difficult evaluation of these writings by teachers, more often proofreaders than readers. Reading once again the works by Saussure, Benveniste and Bakhtine makes it possible to address two questions that arise in mirror of each other. How to write a text and return to it improve it ? How to read this text and accompany the writer-subject towards an improvment given the allocated teaching conditions ? Based on the analysis of manuscripts (drafts, intermediate writings and copy writings) of tenth graders, the relation that writer-subjects have with writings is questioned collectively with the said reflexive measures set up by teacher. The scriptural accomplishement of the student is met by a professional accomplishment. The task led by one cannot be understood without the other’s task.