Chemo-mechanics studies the material behavior and phenomena at the interface of mechanics and chemistry. Material failures due to coupled chemo-mechanical effects are serious roadblocks in the development of renewable energy technologies. Among the sources of renewable energies for the mass market, hydrogen and lithium-ion battery are promising candidates due to their high efficiency and easiness of conversion into other types of energy. However, hydrogen will degrade material mechanical properties and lithium insertion can cause electrode failures in battery owing to their high mobilities and strong chemo-mechanical coupling effects. These problems seriously prevent the large-scale applications of these renewable energy sources. In this thesis, the atomistic and continuum modeling are performed to study the chemical-mechanical failures. The objective is to understand the hydrogen embrittlement of grain boundary engineered metals and the lithium insertion-induced fracture in alloy electrodes for lithium-ion batteries. Hydrogen in metallic containment systems such as high-pressure vessels and pipelines causes the degradation of their mechanical properties that can result in sudden catastrophic fracture. A wide range of hydrogen embrittlement phenomena was attributed to the loss of cohesion of interfaces (between grains, inclusion and matrix, or phases) due to interstitially dissolved hydrogen. Our modeling and simulation of hydrogen embrittlement will address the question of why susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement in metallic materials can be markedly reduced by grain boundary engineering. Implications of our results for efficient hydrogen storage and transport at high pressures are discussed. Silicon is one of the most promising anode materials for Li-ion batteries (LIB) because of the highest known theoretical charge capacity. However, Si anodes often suffer from pulverization and capacity fading. This is caused by the large volume changes of Si (~300%) upon Li insertion/extraction close to the theoretical charging/discharging limit. In particular, large incompatible deformation between areas of different Li contents tends to initiate fracture, leading to electro-chemical-mechanical failures of Si electrodes. In order to understand the chemo-mechanical mechanisms, we begin with the study of basic fracture modes in pure silicon, and then study the diffusion induced deformation and fracture in lithiated Si. Results have implications for increasing battery capacity and reliability. To improve mechanical stability of LIB anode, failure mechanisms of silicon and coated tin-oxide nanowires have been studied at continuum level. It's shown that anisotropic diffusivity and anisotropic deformation play vital roles in lithiation process. Our predictions of fracture initiation and evolution are verified by in situ experiment observations. Due to the mechanical confinement of the coating layers, our study demonstrates that it is possible to simultaneously control the electrochemical reaction rate and the mechanical strain of the electrode materials through carbon or aluminum coating, which opens new avenues of designing better lithium ion batteries. This thesis addresses the nano-chemo-mechanical failure problems in two green energy-carrier systems toward improving the performance of Li-ion battery anode and hydrogen storage system. It provides an atomistic and continuum modeling framework for the study of chemo-mechanics of advanced materials such as nano-structured metals and alloys. The results help understand the chemical effects of impurities on the mechanical properties of host materials with different metallic and covalent bonding characteristics.

Le nickelate de lithium "LiNiO2" est actuellement l'un des matériaux d'électrode positive pour batteries au lithium les plus etudies. Cependant, "LiNiO2" stoechiométrique n'existe pas, la formule réelle est Li1-zNi1+zO2. La présence de ces (z) ions nickel excédentaires entraine une diminution significative des performances électrochimiques. Une étude structurale fine (méthode de Rietveld), couplée à une étude magnétique, a permis de quantifier de façon précise l'écart a la stoechiométrie (z). L'influence de divers substituants sur les propriétés structurales, physiques et électrochimiques a également été étudiée.

The popularity of the internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles has contributed to global warming problem and degradation of air quality around the world. Furthermore, the vehicles??? massive demand on gas has played a role in the depletion of fossil fuel reserves and the considerable rise in the gas price over the past twenty years. Those existing challenges force the auto-industry to move towards the technology development of vehicle electrification. An electrified vehicle is driven by one or more electric motors. And the electricity comes from the onboard energy storage system (ESS). Currently, no single type of green energy source could meet all the requirements to drive a vehicle. A hybrid energy storage system (HESS), as a combination of battery and ultra-capacitor units, is expected to improve the overall performance of vehicles??? ESS. This thesis focuses on the design of HESS and the development of a HESS prototype for electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Battery unit (BU), ultra-capacitor unit (UC) and a DC/DC converter interfacing BU and UC are the three main components of HESS. The research work first reviews literatures regarding characteristics of BU, UC and power electronic converters. HESS design is then conducted based on the considerations of power capability, energy efficiency, size and cost optimization. Besides theoretical analysis, a HESS prototype is developed to prove the principles of operation as well. The results from experiment are compared with those from simulation.

Emerging energy storage applications are driving the demand for Li-ion battery positive electrode materials with higher energy densities and lower costs. The recent production of complete pseudo-ternary phase diagrams of the Li-Mn-Ni-O system generated using combinatorial methods has provided a greater understanding of the impact of initial composition, synthesis temperature, and cooling rate on the phases that form in the final materials. This thesis focuses on the synthesis and characterization of gram-scale positive electrode materials in the Li-Mn-Ni-O system. Structural analysis of these samples has resulted in the production of partial pseudo-ternary phase diagrams focusing on the positive electrode materials region of the Li-Mn-Ni-O system at 800°C and 900°C in air for both quenched and slow cooled compositions. These bulk-scale diagrams support the observations of the combinatorial diagrams, and show similar layered and cubic structures contained within several single- and multi-phase regions. The phases that form at each composition are shown to be dependent on both the reaction temperature and cooling rate used during synthesis. The electrochemical characterization of two composition series near Li2MnO3, one quenched and one slow cooled, is presented. The quenched compositions exhibited reversible cycling at 4.4 V, voltage plateaus and small increases in capacity above 4.6 V, and large first cycle irreversible capacity losses at 4.8 V. In the slow cooled series, all but one composition exhibited initial capacities below 100 mAh/g which began to continually increase with cycling, with several compositions exhibiting capacity increases of 300% over 150 cycles at 4.9 V. In both series, analysis of the voltage and differential capacity plots indicated that significant structure rearrangements are taking place in these materials during extended cycling, the possible origins of which are discussed. Finally, high precision coulometry studies of one Li-deficient and two Li-rich single-phase layered compositions are discussed. These materials exhibit minimal oxidation of simple carbonate-based electrolyte when cycled to high potential, with the Li-deficient composition producing less electrolyte oxidation at 4.6 V vs. Li/Li+ than commercial Li[Ni1/3Mn1/3Co1/3]O2 at 4.2 V. The inherent inertness of this composition may make it suitable for use as a thin protective layer in a core-shell particle.

Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, das LISICON Li3Cr2(PO4)3 als einen Kandidaten für Hochvoltkathodenmaterialien eingehend zu charakterisieren. Dabei lag der Schwerpunkt auf den strukturellen in situ Untersuchungen mittels Synchrotronstrahlung und der Aufdeckung etwaiger limitierender Prozesse. Für diese Arbeit wurde der neue Messplatz P02.1 an der Synchrotronstrahlungsquelle PETRA III, DESY Hamburg für in situ Batterieuntersuchungen evaluiert. In Abhängigkeit von der 2D-Detektorposition können maximale q-Bereiche von bis zu 35 Å-1 oder instrumentelle Auflösungen bis zu 0,0055 Å-1 erzielt werden. Hervorzuheben ist außerdem die zeitliche Auflösung von minimal 130 ms je Diffraktogramm. Mittels galvanostatischen Messungen eines Li3Cr2(PO4)3-haltigen Komposits (80 % (w/w) Aktivmaterial) konnten zwei Lade- und ein Entlademaximum zwischen 4,7 V und 4,9 V vs. Li+/Li nachgewiesen werden. Jedoch beträgt die Coulomb-Effizienz lediglich 60 % (bei 60 mAh/g oxidativer Ladungsmenge). Eine maximale Coulomb-Effizienz von ca. 80 % wurde bei niedrigeren Temperaturen um den Gefrierpunkt gemessen. Neben strukturellen Änderungen ist eine Elektrolytzersetzung nicht auszuschließen, wobei eine mittels XPS nachgewiesene Grenzschicht zwischen Kathode und Elektrolyt diesen vor einer übermäßigen Reaktion zu schützen scheint. Erstmalig ließ sich mittels der Photoelektronenspektroskopie das aktive Redoxpaar Cr4+/Cr3+ in einer Phosphatmatrix nachweisen. Wie die in situ Untersuchungen zeigen, scheint dies mit der Bildung von Chrom-Sauerstoff-Doppelbindungen einherzugehen. Sowohl sich gegenläufig entwickelnde transständige Chromsauerstoffabstände als auch die Verringerung der Phosphorbesetzungszahlen sind starke Indizien für diese neuartige oktaedrische Koordination des Chroms. Diese als sehr stabil einzuschätzende Chromylverbindung, eine nachgewiesene stark anisotrope Kontraktion der Einheitszelle und mittels REM erkennbare Risse in den aktiven LISICON-Kristalliten werden als Hauptursachen für die relativ geringe De- und Reinterkalierbarkeit von Lithium in die Struktur des hier untersuchten Li3Cr2(PO4)3 angesehen. / Aim of this work is the investigation of a compound of the LISICON family Li3Cr2(PO4)3 as a high voltage cathode material in lithium ion batteries. This thesis focuses on the monitoring of structural fatigue mechanisms using synchrotron radiation. A new in situ experimental setup at the beamline P02.1 (PETRA III, DESY Hamburg) was evaluated. In dependence on the 2D detector position either a q-range of 35 Å-1 or an instrumental resolution of 0.0055 Å-1 were determined. A time resolution of 130 ms per diffractogram with still outstanding signal statistics shall be pointed out. By galvanostatic cycling of a Li3Cr2(PO4)3-composite (80 % (w/w) active material) partially reversible redox behavior at 4.7 V and 4.9 V vs. Li+/Li was demonstrated. A coulombic efficiency of 60 % (at 60 mAh/g oxidative charge amount) was measured at room temperature. It can be increased to 80 % at 0 °C. Electrolyte decomposition has to be considered as one possible reason for the limited electrochemical reversibility. A solid electrolyte interface, which was proven by XPS measurements, seems to protect the electrolyte against further decomposition. For the first time, the active redox pair Cr4+/Cr3+ in a phosphate matrix was proven by XPS. Most likely this behavior is accompanied by the formation of chromium-oxygen double bonds, as derived from the in situ synchrotron XRD data. Both an opposing trend in trans-positioned chromium-oxygen bond distances and the less occupied phosphorus positions give strong hints on this octahedral coordination of chromium. The chromyl group is estimated as strong bond and therewith the strongly anisotropic contraction of the unit cell and the formation of visible cracks (as found REM) in the active crystals are indicated as further reasons for the limited electrochemical reversibility for Li-intercalation and deintercalation of the investigated Li3Cr2(PO4)3.

Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert einen Beitrag zum Verständnis der elektrochemischen Prozesse an der Elektrodengrenzfläche und im Festkörper graphitischer Anoden für Lithium-Ionen-Batterien. Der Zusammenhang zwischen den intrinsischen Eigenschaften des Aktivmaterials und den resultierenden Eigenschaften von Kompositelektroden stand dabei im Fokus der Untersuchungen. Die Temperaturabhängigkeit von Materialeigenschaften (Diffusionskoeffizient, Austauschstromdichte) und Elektrodeneigenschaften (Verhalten unter Strombelastung) wurde in einem Bereich von 40 °C bis -10 °C erfasst. Dazu werden elektrochemische Charakterisierungsmethoden aus der Literatur vorgestellt und hinsichtlich ihrer Gültigkeit für die Anwendung an realen Elektroden evaluiert. Die elektrochemisch aktive Oberfläche wurde bestimmt und stellte sich als ausschlaggebender Parameter für die Bewertung der Elektrodenprozesse heraus. Auf Basis korrigierter Elektrodenoberflächen konnten Austauschstromdichten für die konkurrierenden Prozesse Lithium-Interkalation und -Abscheidung ermittelt werden. Zusammen mit Kennwerten zur Keimbildungsüberspannung für Lithium-Abscheidung flossen die ermittelten Kennwerte in eine theoretische Berechnung des Zellstroms ein. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Lithium-Abscheidung kinetisch deutlich gegenüber der Lithium-Interkalation bevorzugt ist, nicht nur bei niedriger Temperatur. Die Übertragbarkeit wissenschaftlicher Grundlagenexperimente auf kommerzielle Systeme war bei allen Versuchen Gegenstand der Untersuchungen. In einem separaten Beispiel einer Oberflächenmodifikation mit Zinn wurde diese Problematik besonders verdeutlicht. Zusätzlich wurde die parasitäre Abscheidung von Lithium auf graphitischen Anoden hinsichtlich der Nachweisbarkeit und Quantifizierung evaluiert. Hierfür wurde eine neue Untersuchungsmethode im Bereich der Lithium-Ionen-Batterie zur besseren Detektion von Lithium-Abscheidung und Grenzflächen-Morphologie mittels Elektronenmikroskopie entwickelt. Die Osmiumtetroxid (OsO4) Färbung ermöglichte eine deutliche Verbesserung des Materialkontrasts und erlaubte somit eine gezielte Untersuchung von graphitischen Anoden nach erfolgter Lithium-Abscheidung. Darüber hinaus konnte die selektive Reaktion des OsO4 für eine genauere Betrachtung der Solid Electrolyte Interphase genutzt werden. Eine Stabilisierung der Proben an Luft und im Elektronenstrahl konnte erreicht werden. / This work sheds light on the electrochemical processes occurring at commercially processed graphitic anodes. It raises the question whether values published in literature for mostly ideal electrode systems can be readily taken for simulation and design of real electrodes in high-energy cells. A multiple step approach is given, evaluating different methods to determine electrode and material properties independently. The electrochemically active surface area was shown to be a crucial parameter for the calculation of electrode kinetics. Using exchange current densities corrected for the electrode surface area, the overall charging current in a cell could be calculated. The resulting part of lithium deposition in the charging process is strikingly high, not only at low temperatures. To further investigate lithium deposition in terms of morphology and quantity, a method was developed for graphitic anodes. Osmium tetroxide (OsO4) staining serves well as a tool to strongly increase material contrast in electron microscopy. Thus lithium dendrites could be made visible in an unprecedented manner. Furthermore, the selective chemical reaction of osmium tetroxide allows for a better investigation of the multi-layer solid electrolyte interphase as was shown in transmission electron microscopy. Using the staining method, a stabilization of the sample under air and in the electron beam could be achieved.

No description available.

Lithium‐ion batteries are particularly suitable as energy storage solutions in high power applications, such as hybrid electric vehicles. It is generally considered that one of the processes that limit the power density for lithium‐ion batteries is the mass transport in the electrolyte. Yet, it is still difficult to find a set of properties that fully describe the mass transport for the most common electrolytes. In this work, characterization studies of the mass transport were undertaken for two technically important lithium‐ion battery electrolytes: (1) a liquid electrolyte which consist of LiPF6 dissolved in ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) and ethylene carbonate (EC) and, (2) a gel electrolyte which consists of LiPF6 dissolved in ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate (PC) and poly(vinylidenefluoride‐hexafluoropropylene) (P(VdFHFP)).The mass transport in the electrolytes was characterized by combining several experiments. The Maxwell‐Stefan equation was used as basis for the characterization. Models of the transport were formulated from the equation and the apparent transport properties were identified. The characterization methods were first analyzed mathematically in order to establish at which conditions the characterization experiments should be performed. The values of the apparent transport properties were then obtained by optimizing the models to the experimental responses. In order to give the characterization results a comprehensible interpretation and to allow benchmarking of electrolytes, the concept of a normalized potential gradient was introduced.The characterization results of the liquid electrolyte were used in a full cell model of a LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 | LiPF6 EC:EMC (3:7) | MAG‐10 cell. The model was developed to analyze the mass transport during a hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) test. The analysis was made with a method where the polarization was split up into parts each associated with a process within the cell. The optimum composition in terms of mass transport was found to lie between 0.5 and 1.2 mol/dm3 LiPF6 for the liquid electrolyte and between 5 and 7 wt. % LiPF6 for the gel electrolyte. Less amount of polymer in the gel electrolyte gave a faster mass transport. It was also found that the mass transport in the liquid electrolyte contributed to a major part of the polarization during HPPC tests. / Litiumjonbatterier är speciellt lämpliga som ackumulatorer i högeffektsapplikationer som elhybridfordon. Det är idag allmänt accepterat att en av processerna som begränsar effekttätheten för litiumjonbatterier är masstransporten i elektrolyten. Trots detta är det fortfarande svårt att få tag på data som fullständigt beskriver masstransporten i de vanligaste elektrolyterna. I det här arbetet har masstransportkarakteriseringar gjorts för två tekniskt viktiga elektrolyter: (1) en vätskeelektrolyt som består av LiPF6 upplöst i etylenkarbonat (EC) och etylmetylkarbonat (EMC), och (2) en gel elektrolyt som består av LiPF6 upplöst i EC, propylenkarbonat (PC) och poly(vinylidene fluoride‐hexafluoro propylene) (P(VdFHFP)). Masstransporten i elektrolyterna karakteriserades genom att kombinera ett antal karakteriseringsexperiment. Maxwell‐Stefans ekvation användes som utgångspunkt i karakteriseringarna. Modeller av transporten formulerades från ekvationen och de effektiva transportegenskaperna identifierades. En matematisk analys gjordes först av karakteriseringstekniken, så att det kunde fastslås för vilka förhållanden experimenten skulle utföras. Värderna av transportegenskaperna erhölls genom att optimera modellerna till det experimentella beteendet. För att ge karakteriseringsresultaten en begriplig tolkning och för att kunna mäta prestandan av elektrolyter, infördes konceptet normaliserad potentialgradient. Resultatet från karakteriseringen av vätskeelektrolyten användes i en model av en LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 | LiPF6 EC:EMC (3:7) | MAG‐10 cell. Modellen utvecklades för att analysera masstransporten i cellen under ett hybridpulstest (HPPC). Analysen gjordes med en metod där polarisationen delades upp i delar som var och en var kopplad till en process i batteriet. Den optimala sammansättningen med avseende på masstransporten låg i regionen 0.5–1.2 mol/dm3 LiPF6 för vätskeelektrolyten och 5‐7 vikt% LiPF6 för gelelektrolyten. Mindre mängd polymer i gelelektrolyten gav en snabbare masstransport. Det konstaterades också att masstransporten i vätskeelektrolyten bidrog med en av de största delarna till polarisationen i HPPC testen. / QC 20110128

No description available.

Les travaux de cette thèse ont été consacrés à la synthèse de nanoparticules magnétiques d'oxyde de fer et d'oxyde de cobalt et de nanoparticules coeur-coquille constituées d'un coeur d'oxyde de fer recouvert d'oxyde de cobalt et à l'élaboration de nanomatériaux - composites nanostructures carbonées/nanoparticules d'oxyde métallique - pour des applications dans le domaine biomédical et celui de l'énergie. Pour la synthèse des NPs, la forme et la taille des NPs sont fortement dépendantes des conditions de réaction (nature des ligands, des solvants, température de réaction ... ) , ce qui affecte leurs propriétés magnétiques. De plus, des simulations ont montré que les chaînes de stéarate peuvent désorber plus facilement les atomes de fer que les atomes de cobalt et se libérer pour former des germes, ce qui pourrait expliquer le comportement distinctif entre les deux complexes. Ces nanoparticules magnétiques ont été synthétisées à l'intérieur de nanotubes de carbone en deux étapes aboutissant à des taux de remplissage très importants. Après fonctionnalisation, ces nanocomposites ont été introduits dans de cellules tumorales et ont été magnétiquement manipulées. Ils se sont révélés être très efficaces en tant qu'agents de contraste en IRM mais également dans le domaine de l'hyperthermie (activation sous éclairage dans le domaine de !'Infrarouge proche). Enfin, de nouveaux composites à partir de nanoparticules de Nb20 5 et de graphène (ou NTCs) ont été synthétisés et des résultat~prometteurs ont été obtenus dans des tests de batterie lithium-ion : leur utilisation en tant qu'anode a permis d'obtenir des capacités réversibles de 260 mAh/g. / This thesis was focused on the synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles of iron oxide and cobalt oxide and core-shell nanoparticles, consisting of a cobalt oxide coated iron oxide and on the development of composite nanomaterials - nanostructures carbon /metal oxide nanoparticles - for applications in the biomedical field and the energy. For the synthesis of NPs, the shape and size of NPs are dependent of the reaction conditions, which further affect their magnetic properties. Meanwhile, simulation showed that stearate chains can desorb more easily from iron atoms and release to form seeds than from cobalt atoms, which might explain distinctive behavior between the bath complexes. Regarding nanostructures carbon/metal oxide nanoparticles hybrid materials, the properties of the filled magnetic CNTs as heat mediator for photothermal ablation and as contrast agent for MRI were then evaluated and promising results have been obtained. Last, new composite materials (Nb205 nanoparticles/graphene or NTCs) were synthesized and promising results were obtaines in lithium battery tests : their use as anode allowed obtaining reversible capacities of 260 mAh/g.