no / Cryptolepine, an indoloquinoline alkaloid in Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, has anti-inflammatory property. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of cryptolepine on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- induced neuroinflammation in rat microglia and its potential mechanisms. Microglial activation was induced by stimulation with LPS, and the effects of cryptolepine pretreatment on microglial activation and production of proinflammatory mediators, PGE2/COX-2, microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase and nitric oxide/iNOS were investigated. We further elucidated the role of Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and the mitogen-activated protein kinases in the antiinflammatory actions of cryptolepine in LPS-stimulated microglia. Our results showed that cryptolepine significantly inhibited LPS-induced production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), nitric oxide, and PGE2. Protein and mRNA levels of COX-2 and iNOS were also attenuated by cryptolepine. Further experiments on intracellular signalling mechanisms show that IκB-independent inhibition of NF-κB nuclear translocation contributes to the anti-neuroinflammatory actions of cryptolepine. Results also show that cryptolepine inhibited LPS-induced p38 and MAPKAPK2 phosphorylation in the microglia. Cell viability experiments revealed that cryptolepine (2.5 and 5 μM) did not produce cytotoxicity in microglia. Taken together, our results suggest that cryptolepine inhibits LPS-induced microglial inflammation by partial targeting of NF-κB signalling and attenuation of p38/MAPKAPK2.

No description available.

Monocytes are dynamic innate immune cells that respond differently based upon the dose and duration of an infection. While super low dose endotoxin is found in chronic inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, exposure to high dose endotoxin leads to sepsis. However, clear characterization of monocytes and the underlying mechanisms in these disease conditions is lacking. To elucidate the missing information, we conducted two different projects. In the first project, we investigated the role of super low dose endotoxin in polarizing monocytes to a prolonged low-grade inflammatory state with no resolution, disrupting homeostasis. This low grade inflammatory phenotype was confirmed by sustained induction of inflammatory mediators CD40 and CD11a. In addition, low grade inflammatory monocytes influence neighboring T cells by suppressing T cell regulatory functions. Mechanistically, we showed that the non-resolving inflammatory phenotypes in monocytes is dependent on non-traditional TLR4 adaptor called TRAM. In the second project, we focused on the effects of high dose endotoxin on monocyte phenotypes. We reported that high dose endotoxin give rise to a mix of both immunosuppressive and pathogenic inflammatory monocytes, leading to monocyte exhaustion. While thorough research is conducted to study the immunosuppressive monocytes and underlying long term effects, role of pathogenic inflammatory monocytes is not well addressed. Monocyte exhaustion leads to elevated levels of CD38, an inflammatory mediator, elevated ROS levels, depleted NAD+ and mitochondrial respiration. STAT1 and KLF4 are critical transcription factors in sustaining exhausted phenotypes. Indeed, TRAM adaptor molecule also mediates this exhaustion as TRAM deletion restores monocyte health. Taken together, our work defines novel monocyte phenotypes and mechanism in super-low dose or high dose endotoxin environments. / Doctor of Philosophy / Healthy inflammatory response is represented by initial induction of inflammatory cells in the site of infection and pathogen clearance, followed by resolution of inflammation and damage repair. This balance between inflammation and resolution maintains immune homeostasis. Imbalances in this homeostasis can be a cause or effect of various disease conditions such as atherosclerosis and sepsis, for example. Despite rigorous research, these diseases are still prevalent and treatments are still lacking. It is essential to investigate inflammatory responses at a cellular level and understand how an immune cell responds to a given pathogen. Depending upon the intensity, dose and duration of a pathogen can dictate immune cell functions. Recent discoveries, including the research in our lab have reported that super low dose bacterial endotoxin exacerbates atherosclerosis. Mouse monocytes (innate immune cells) treated with super low dose endotoxin continuously induce mild but sustained inflammatory molecules but are unable to exhibit resolving mediators to dampen the inflammation and hence, monocyte homeostasis is disrupted. Homeostatic imbalance is also in seen in sepsis, when monocytes exposed to high dose bacterial endotoxin. Due to a repetitive exposure to high dose endotoxin, monocytes are unable to respond accurately, where they simultaneously exhibit inflammatory and anti-inflammatory mediators but in a dysregulated manner.

A molécula CD14 é uma glicoproteína expressa na membrana de leucócitos e células não mieloides, e pode ser encontrada tanto na membrana plasmática ancorada por glicosilfosfatidilinositol (GPI), como na forma solúvel no espaço extracelular. Esta molécula atua como co-receptor associado a receptores semelhantes a Toll (TLR), dentre eles o TLR4, e auxilia na ativação celular após reconhecimento de padrões moleculares associados a patógenos (PAMPs). Macrófagos ativados por produtos microbianos, como pelo lipopolissacarídeo (LPS), liberam citocinas e óxido nítrico (NO) que participam do processo inflamatório e sinalizam para células vizinhas ou distantes sobre a presença de agente agressor ou alterações teciduais. Após a ativação dos macrófagos, também são produzidos eicosanoides (EICs) que são mediadores lipídicos, como as prostaglandinas (PGs), os tromboxanos (TXs) e os leucotrienos (LTs). Os EICs são derivados em parte dos corpúsculos lipídicos (CLs) que são organelas citoplasmáticas funcionais, dinâmicas, ricas em lipídios e enzimas. Resultados anteriores do nosso grupo já demonstraram o envolvimento da molécula CD14 na produção de mediadores lipídicos, sem, contudo, elucidar os mecanismos. Assim, empregando macrófagos derivados da medula óssea (MDMO) estimulados com alta (500 ng/mL) e baixa (10 ng/mL) concentrações de LPS, tivemos como objetivo investigar a participação do CD14 na formação de CLs e na produção de prostanoides. A relevância da molécula CD14 foi ainda investigada na ativação de MDMO pelo ácido araquidônico exógeno (AA) (estímulo não específico). Nossos resultados demonstraram que a molécula CD14 contribui não somente para a formação de CLs e produção de prostanoides, como PGE2 e TXB2, mas também é essencial para a síntese de mediadores inflamatórios, como NO, TNF-? e IL-10, principalmente quando estimulados com baixa concentração de LPS / The CD14 molecule is a membrane-bound glycoprotein expressed by leukocytes and nonmyeloid cells, which can be attached to the plasma membrane by glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) or in its soluble form in the extracellular space. This molecule acts as a co-receptor associated with Toll-like receptors (TLRs), including TLR4, and assists in cell activation after recognition of molecular patterns associated with pathogens (PAMPs). Macrophages activated by microbial products, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), release cytokines and nitric oxide (NO) that participate in the inflammatory process and signal to nearby or distant cells about the presence of an aggressive agent or tissue changes. After activation of macrophages, the lipid mediators denominated eicosanoids, such as prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs) and leukotrienes (LTs) are also produced. Eicosanoids are derived in part from lipid droplets (LDs) which are functional, dynamic cytoplasmic organelles, rich in lipids and enzymes. Previous results from our group have already demonstrated the involvement of the CD14 molecule in the production of lipid mediators, without, however, elucidating the mechanisms. Thus, using bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) stimulated with high (500 ng/mL) and low (10 ng/mL) LPS concentrations, we aimed to investigate the participation of CD14 in the formation of LDs and in the production of prostanoids. The relevance of the CD14 molecule was further investigated by the activation of BMDM by exogenous arachidonic acid (AA) (nonspecific stimulus). Our results demonstrated that the CD14 molecule contributes not only to the formation of CLs and the production of prostanoids, such as PGE2 and TXB2, but it is also essential for the synthesis of inflammatory mediators, such as NO, TNF-? and IL-10, especially when stimulated with low LPS concentration

A glândula pineal é um órgão transdutor da informação fótica ambiental para o meio interno do organismo, provendo melatonina para a circulação sistêmica, a qual sinaliza o período de escuro e sincroniza os ritmos endógenos de acordo com as variações ambientais (Reiter, 1993). Várias evidências apontam para uma comunicação bidirecional entre a pineal e o sistema imune. Foi identificado na glândula pineal de ratos o fator de transcrição NFkB, uma via de trasncrição preferencial para citocinas e glicocorticóides e que modula a síntese de melatonina. TNFα inibe transientemente enquanto corticosterona potencia a transcrição do gene da Aa-nat, enzima chave na síntese de melatonina (Ferreira et al., 2005; Fernandes et al., 2006). LPS é um constituinte da membrana de bactérias gram-negativas e potente indutor de inflamação sistêmica e local. A sinalização de LPS é mediada por receptores toll-like 4 (TLR4) que leva à indução da enzima sintase de óxido nítrico induzivel (iNOS) e subsequente formação de óxido nítrico (NO). O objetivo deste trabalho foi demonstrar a expressão de TLR4 e a resposta funcional da via de transdução de LPS. Foram usados ratos Wistar fêmeas (1-2 meses). O RNAm total foi extraído de pineais controle e usados em RT-PCR com primers específcos contra os transcritos tlr-4, Cd14 e o controle interno Gapdh. Para a imunohistoquímica, secções de pineal de animais perfundidos com solução fixadora seguida de fixação com PAF 4% foram usadas com o anticorpo contra TLR4, sendo o controle negativo obtido na ausência de anticorpo. Os pinealocitos foram obtidos por tripsinização seguida de dispersão mecânica. O acúmulo de NFkB em extratos nucleares de pineais de animais tratados in vivo com LPS (1 mg/kg, iv, 2h) foi analisado por EMSA. A produção de NO foi medida por microscopia confocal em células carregadas com o cromóforo fluorescente DAR-4M-AM (5μM, 30min). RT-PCR revelou a presence constitutiva do RNAm de tlr-4 e Cd14 em pineais de rato. O estudo imunohistoquímico indicou uma marcação positiva para TLR4 em localização citoplasmática e nuclear, sendo abolida qualquer marcação na ausência do anticorpo. Um aumento na translocação nuclear de NFB foi observada nos animais tratados com LPS. LPS também levou a uma resposta funcional com aumento na reatividade da iNOS e aumento na produção de NO de maneira dependente de tempo e da concentração de LPS (0,1 to 10 μg/mL). O máximo aumento da produção de NO foi observado com LPS 1 μg/mL por 2 h. Este efeito foi inibido com o pré-tratamento com L-NAME (0.1mM, 30min) e 1400W (1μM, 30 min). Estes resultados demonstram que a glândula pineal de rato está instrumentada a responder ao desafio com LPS através da indução da via NFkB mediada por TLR4. Além disso, funcionalmente esta estimulação induz um significante aumento da imunoreatividade à iNOS e produção de NO. Estes dados corroboram com a hipótese do eixo imune-pineal com supressão da produção de melatonina no início de uma resposta de defesa. / Accumulating evidences put the pineal gland and the immune system reciprocally linked by bidirectional communication. Rat pineal gland constitutively activated NFkB, which plays a role on melatonin synthesis, is a preferential transduction pathway for cytokines and glucocorticoids (Ferreira et al., 2005; Fernandes et al., 2006). TNFα transiently inhibits, while corticosterone potentiates, noradrenaline-induced Aa-nat gene transcription, a key enzyme in melatonin synthesis. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are the major components of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, which makes them prime targets for recognition by the immune system. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) conveys LPS signaling which induces expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and subsequent nitric oxide (NO) formation. An attempt has been made to demonstrate the expression of TLR4 in the rat pineal glands as well as the characterization of functional response and the transduction pathway following LPS challenge. Female Wistar rats (1-2 months) were used. Total RNA was extracted from control pineals and used in real time RT-PCR with specific primers against tlr-4 and Cd14 transcritps and the housekeeping gene Gapdh (internal control). For immunohistochemistry, the pineals cryosections (8μm) from perfused animals (Lanas fixative, 4% PAF, 15min) followed by fixation (4% PAF, 30min) were used with an antibody against rat TLR4, being the negative control performed in the absence of primary antibody. Pinealocytes were obtained by trypsinization followed by mechanical dispersion. The amount of NFB present in nuclear extracts of pinealocytes challenged with LPS (1μg/ml, 15min) was assayed by EMSA. NO production was measured by confocal microscopy in cells loaded with the fluorescent dye DAR-4M-AM (5μM, 30min). RT-PCR revealed specific constitutive tlr-4 and Cd14 mRNA levels in rat pineals. Immunohistochemistry (n=4) indicated TLR4-positive and -negative immunostaining in the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments of the cells. All TLR4-positive immunostaining were significantly decreased when experiments were performed in the absence of the primary antibody. An increase in the nuclear translocation of NFKB was observed in LPS challenged cells. LPS (0.1 to 10 μg/mL) also lead to a functional response, as it increased the immunoreactivity of iNOS and a time- and concentration-dependent manner the level of NO in cultured pinealocytes. The maximal NO content induced by LPS 1.0 μg/mL was observed 2h after stimulation. Baseline levels were restored after 4-6h of LPS. The LPS stimulatory effect was fully abolished by the pre-treatments with L-NAME (0.1mM, 30min) and 1400W (1μM). Therefore, our data show that pinealocytes are instrumented for answering to LPS challenge through TLR4-induced NFkB pathway. In addition we observed that this stimulation induces a significant increase in iNOS immunoreactivity and NO production. These data corroborates to the hypothesis that pineal melatonin production is suppressed at the beginning of a defense response.

Au cours des dernières décennies, les modifications comportementales ont conduit à une forte augmentation de la prévalence des maladies métaboliques comme l’obésité et le diabète de type 2. L’hyperglycémie chronique associée à ces maladies a des effets délétères sur de nombreux tissus, entraînant de graves complications (glucotoxicité). Parmi les différents mécanismes impliqués dans les effets toxiques du glucose, la O-N-acétylglucosaminylation (O-GlcNAc) des protéines joue un rôle très important. La O-GlcNAcylation est une modification post-traductionnelle réversible qui régule l'activité des protéines cytosoliques et nucléaires en fonction de la disponibilité en glucose. Deux enzymes seulement, l’O-GlcNAc transférase (OGT) et l’O-GlcNAcase (OGA), ajoutent ou retirent le groupement GlcNAc sur les protéines, respectivement. Cette modification dépend étroitement de la disponibilité en glucose et de son flux à travers la voie de biosynthèse des hexosamines (HBP). Les maladies métaboliques comme le diabète et l'obésité se caractérisent par ailleurs par une inflammation chronique à bas bruit, qui participe également aux complications observées dans ces pathologies. Les perturbations métaboliques associées à ces maladies (augmentation des acides gras libres et du glucose) favorisent les processus pro-inflammatoires dans le macrophage. Cependant, les relations entre processus inflammatoires et O-GlcNAcylation des protéines restent peu explorées. Le but de ce travail était d’évaluer l’implication de la voie de O-GlcNAcylation dans le macrophage. Les études ont été réalisées en utilisant la lignée de macrophages murins RAW264.7 ou des macrophages, différenciés à partir de moelle osseuse de souris, des macrophages péritonéaux de souris ou des macrophages différenciés à partir à de monocytes humains. La O-GlcNAcylation des protéines a été mesurée dans les macrophages RAW264.7 à l’aide d’un biosenseur BRET adressé dans différents compartiments cellulaires. Nous avons observé que l'activation du Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 par le LPS (lipopolysaccharide) augmente le signal de BRET à la membrane plasmique, dans le cytosol et le noyau des cellules RAW264.7. Une augmentation de la O-GlcNAcylation induite par le LPS était également observée par western blotting dans les cellules RAW264.7 et dans les macrophages primaires de souris et humains. Cette augmentation de O-GlcNAcylation était en particulier détectée sur la sous-unité p65 du facteur de transcription NFκB, suggérant un rôle de cette modification dans les effets pro-inflammatoires du LPS. En accord avec cette notion, l’inhibition de l’OGA, (responsable de la dé-GlcNAcylation des protéines) à l’aide d’un inhibiteur spécifique (Thiamet G), potentialise les effets du LPS sur l’expression des ARNm de la cytokine pro-inflammatoire IL1β. Nous avons en outre généré un modèle de souris OGT-KO inductible au tamoxifène. L’invalidation de l’OGT dans les macrophages primaires de ces souris réduit l’effet du LPS sur l’expression des ARNm de l’IL1β d’un facteur 2, suggérant que l’induction de la O-GlcNAcylation est au moins en partie impliquée dans la transmission des effets pro-inflammatoires du LPS. Afin d’élucider les mécanismes responsables de l’augmentation de O-GlcNAcylation induite par le LPS, nous avons étudié, dans les cellules RAW264.7, l’effet du LPS sur les enzymes impliquées dans la voie O-GlcNAc. Nous avons observé que le traitement au LPS n’a pas d’effet sur l’expression (ARNm et protéine) et sur les activités enzymatiques de l’OGT et de l’OGA. En revanche, le LPS induit une forte augmentation de l’expression (ARNm et protéine) de la glutamine : fructose-6-phosphate amidotransférase (GFAT), enzyme limitante de la voie HBP. (...) / In the last decades, changes in lifestyle have led to a dramatic increased prevalence of pathologies such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. Chronic hyperglycaemia associated with these diseases has deleterious effects on many tissues, resulting in serious complications (glucotoxicity). Among the different mechanisms involved in the toxic effects of glucose, O-N-acetylglucosaminylation (O-GlcNAc) of proteins plays an important role. O-GlcNAcylation is a reversible post-translational modification that regulates the activities of cytosolic and nuclear proteins. Only two enzymes, O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) and O-GlcNAcase (OGA), control the level of O-linked N-acetyl glucosamine (O- GlcNAc) on proteins. OGT is the enzyme that O-GlcNAcylates proteins, whereas OGA removes O-GlcNAc from proteins. This post-translational modification tightly depends on glucose availability and its flux through the hexosamines biosynthesis pathway (HBP). Metabolic diseases such as diabetes and obesity are also characterized by chronic low level inflammation, which contributes to the complications observed in these pathologies. The metabolic disturbances associated with these diseases (increased free fatty acids and glucose) promote pro-inflammatory processes in the macrophage. However, the relationships between inflammatory processes and O-GlcNAcylation of proteins remain poorly explored. The aim of this work was to evaluate the involvement of the O-GlcNAcylation pathway in the macrophage. The studies were carried out using the RAW264.7 mouse macrophage cell line or primary macrophages differentiated from mouse bone marrow (BMDM), peritoneal mouse macrophages, or human monocytes derived macrophages (hMDM). O-GlcNAcylation of proteins was measured in RAW264.7 macrophages using a BRET biosensor targeted to different cell compartments. We have observed that activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 by LPS (lipopolysaccharide) increases the BRET signal at the plasma membrane, in the cytosol, and nucleus of RAW264.7 cells. An increase in LPS-induced O-GlcNAcylation was also observed by western blotting in RAW264.7 cells and primary mouse and human macrophages. This increase in O-GlcNAcylation was in particular detected on the p65 subunit of the NFκB transcription factor, suggesting a role for this modification in the pro-inflammatory effects of LPS. In agreement with this notion, inhibition of OGA, (responsible for de-GlcNAcylation of proteins) using a specific inhibitor (Thiamet G) potentiates the effects of LPS on mRNA expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL1β. In addition, we generated a tamoxifen-inducible OTG-KO mouse model. Invalidation of OGT in primary macrophages of these mice reduces the effect of LPS on the expression of IL1β mRNAs by a factor of 2, suggesting that the induction of O-GlcNAcylation is at least in part involved in the transmission of the pro-inflammatory effects of LPS. In order to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for LPS-induced increase in O-GlcNAcylation, we studied the effect of LPS on the enzymes involved in the O-GlcNAc pathway in RAW264.7 cells. We observed that LPS treatment had no effect on the expression (mRNA and protein) and on the enzymatic activities of OGT and OGA. On the other hand, LPS induced a strong increase in the expression (mRNA and protein) of glutamine: fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase (GFAT), the rate limiting enzyme of the HBP pathway. Inhibition of GFAT with 6-Diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON) inhibited LPS-induced increase in O-GlcNAcylation and LPS effect on the expression of IL1β mRNA, but not NOS2 expression, confirming a partial dependence of the pro-inflammatory effects of LPS on the O-GlcNAc pathway. In conclusion, our results indicate that activation of the O-GlcNAcylation pathway could be considered as an integral part of the signal induced by TLR4, and suggest that this pathway is involved in some of the pro-inflammatory effects of LPS in the macrophage.

A O-glicosilação com N-acetil-glucosamina (O-GlcNAc) é uma modificação póstraducional altamente dinâmica, controlada por duas enzimas: a OGT, responsável por catalisar a adição de N-acetil-glucosamina no grupo hidroxila dos resíduos de serina e treonina; e a OGA, que catalisa a remoção de O-GlcNAc das proteínas modificadas. Condições crônicas de aumento de proteínas O-GlcNAc estão associadas a disfunções vasculares e a efeitos negativos no coração. No entanto, os efeitos agudos produzidos pelo aumento de O-GlcNAc estão associados a uma melhora na função cardíaca, redução dos níveis vasculares de mediadores pró-inflamatórios. Neste estudo testamos a hipótese que o aumento agudo da modificação por O-GlcNAc reduz os níveis sistêmicos de citocinas pró-inflamatórias, como IL-1?, IL-6 e TNF-?, bem como a ativação do fator de transcrição NF-?B, reduzindo o processo inflamatório e disfunção vascular em animais com endotoxemia. Foram utilizados camundongos C57BL6/J que receberam lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) para o desenvolvimento de endotoxemia severa (LPS sev, 20 mg/Kg, i.p.) ou veículo (controle). Os animais também receberam glucosamina (GlcN; 300 mg/Kg; i.v.; 30 min antes do LPS), ThG (150 ?g/Kg, i.v.; 12 h antes do LPS) ou veículo e foram sacrificados 6 horas após a indução da endotoxemia com LPS. Os tratamentos prévios com GlcN e ThG aumentaram a sobrevida dos animais (50 % e 60 % na endotoxemia sev). A determinação dos níveis sistêmicos de IL-1?, IL-6 e TNF-? e da expressão gênica vascular destas citocinas [mRNA (2-??CT) em aorta e leito mesentérico] demonstrou que os tratamentos prévios com GlcN e ThG reduziram a expressão de IL- 1?, IL-6 e TNF-? em animais com endotoxemia. O tratamento prévio com GlcN atenuou, mas não normalizou a hipotensão arterial causada pela endotoxemia por LPS. Não foram observadas alterações de reatividade na artéria aorta de animais que receberam LPS, ou LPS + GlcN. Entretanto, os tratamentos prévios com GlcN e ThG atenuaram a refratariedade a vasoconstrictores observada em artéria mesentérica de resistência de animais que receberam somente LPS. O aumento dos níveis de proteínas glicosiladas, com GlcN e ThG, em cultura de macrófagos provenientes da medula óssea de camundongos C57BL6/J corroboram os resultados descritos acima. Os níveis de citocinas no sobrenadante da cultura de macrófagos, bem como a expressão gênica destas citocinas, e a produção de nitrito por estas células foram menores em células submetidas ao tratamento com GlcN e ThG. Além da endotoxemia por LPS, avaliamos os efeitos do tratamento com GlcN em um modelo de ligadura e perfuração do ceco (CLP) e os resultados corroboram os dados obtidos nos animais com endotoxemia e na cultura de macrófagos. Portanto, o aumento agudo da modificação por O-GlcNAc em animais com endotoxemia por LPS promove aumento da sobrevida dos animais, redução nos níveis de citocinas pró-inflamatórias, como IL-1?, IL-6 e TNF-? e redução da disfunção vascular e hipotensão arterial. Conclusão: Aumento agudo de O-GlcNAc reduz o processo inflamatório e atenua eventos cardiovasculares associados a endotoxemia por LPS, sugerindo que essa via representa um possível alvo em condições de resposta inflamatória sistêmica. / The post-translational modification of proteins by O-GlcNAcylation (O-GlcNAc) is highly dynamic and modulates cell-signaling processes. Chronic conditions that increase the levels of O-GlcNAc-modified proteins are associated with vascular disorders. However, acute increases in O-GlcNAc levels reduce the release of proinflammatory mediators and negatively regulate inflammatory processes by decreasing e.g. NF-?B activation. This study tested the hypothesis that acute increases of O-GlcNAc levels reduce mortality and inflammatory processes in experimental models of sepsis. Male C57BL6/J mice received lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for the development of severe (LPS sev, 20 mg / kg, i.p.) endotoxemia or vehicle (control). Mice also received glucosamine (GlcN; 300 mg / kg, iv; 30 min) or ThG (150 ?g / kg, iv; 12 h) or vehicle before LPS administration. Mice were killed 6 hours after LPS. The acute increase of OGlcNAc modification in animals with LPS-induced endotoxemia increased survival, reduced levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1?, IL-6 and TNF-? and attenuated vascular dysfunction and arterial hypotension. Treatments with GlcN and ThG reduced IL-1?, IL-6 and TNF-? [plasma levels and vascular gene expression [mRNA] (2- ??CT) in the aorta and mesenteric bed] in animals with endotoxemia. GlcN and ThG also attenuated the decreased vasoconstrictor responses and hypotension induced by LPS. Increased levels of glycosylated proteins decreased levels (in the supernatant) and expression of cytokines in cultured bone marrow-derived macrophages from C57BL6/J mice. GlcN treatment produced similar effects in an experimental model that closely resembles human sepsis, the cecum ligation and perforation (CLP) model. Conclusion: Acute increase of O-GlcNAc reduces the inflammatory process and attenuates cardiovascular events associated with LPS endotoxemia, suggesting that this pathway represents a possible target under conditions of systemic inflammatory response.

O lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) é uma endotoxina bacteriana capaz de ativar o sistema imune com a síntese de citocinas pró-inflamatórias (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α, dentre outros), afetando o cérebro animal e causando o comportamento doentio. Durante a gestação, infecções e inflamações maternas podem levar a danos na prole, incluindo desordens neuropsiquiátricas como depressão, esquizofrenia e autismo. O presente trabalho avaliou os efeitos comportamentais e neuroquímicos da exposição ao LPS em ratas gestantes e nas suas proles. Para tanto, ratas Wistar receberam o LPS (100 µg / kg, i.p.) no 9,5º dia de gestação (GD). A atividade geral destas ratas foi observada 1 hora após o tratamento; a ingestão de alimentos às 24, 48 e 72 horas e a temperatura corpórea tomada 1, 24 e 48 horas após o tratamento. Durante a gestação e ao nascimento da prole, avaliou-se o ganho de peso materno, a duração da gestação, o número e peso dos filhotes nascidos. Os filhotes machos destas ratas tratadas com LPS foram estudados quanto aos padrões físicos e reflexológicos, a atividade geral observada em campo aberto, o comportamento de brincar, os níveis de neurotransmissores e metabólitos no estriado, hipotálamo e córtex frontal, a morfologia cerebral, a interação social na idade adulta, a catatonia induzida por haloperidol e a estereotipia induzida por apomorfina. Os resultados mostraram que a administração do LPS no GD 9,5 nas fêmeas prenhes causou: 1) comportamento doentio, com redução da atividade geral, da ingestão de alimentos, do ganho de peso durante a gestação, e da viabilidade da prole; 2) não interferiu na duração da gestação, no peso total e individual da prole, além de não causar febre materna. Na prole destas ratas observou-se na infância, em relação aos animais do grupo controle: 1) ausência de alterações no desenvolvimento dos padrões físicos e reflexológicos; 2) redução na auto-limpeza, sem alterações nos demais parâmetros da atividade geral; 3) redução do comportamento de brincar. Na idade adulta verificou-se: 1) redução na interação social e nos níveis de dopamina estriatal e seus metabólitos; 2) não foram observadas alterações na catatonia induzida por haloperidol, no comportamento estereotipado induzido por apomorfina, na morfologia cerebral, nos níveis de neurotransmissores e metabólitos hipotalâmicos e do córtex frontal, bem como de noradrenalina e serotonina estriatais. Estes dados mostraram que a infecção materna pode interferir no ambiente intra-uterino, comprometendo a viabilidade da ninhada, prejudicando o comportamento social da prole por toda a vida, interferindo também com a atividade do sistema dopaminérgico estriatal. Em vista desses resultados, sugeriu-se que essas alterações não comprometeram o sistema motor da prole, mas sim a emocionalidade e a motivação. / Pre- or perinatal events that influence the immune system contribute to the development of behavioral or neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and autism. This study investigated the relationships between lipopolysaccharide (LPS) -induced maternal sickness behavior during pregnancy and offspring development, behavior, neurochemistry, and neuroanatomy. Pregnant Wistar rats received LPS (100 µg / kg, i.p.) at the gestation day 9.5. Dam\'s sickness behavior was analyzed and at birth, the offspring number and weight were taken. The physical and behavioral development, general activity, play behavior, striatal, hypothalamus and frontal cortex monoamine levels, cerebral morphology, adult\'s social interaction, catalepsy and stereotypy were evaluated in male pups. Results showed that in relation to the control groups LPS treated dams presented a decreased open-field behavior, in food intake and weight gain, but no maternal fever was observed. In offspring: 1) the pups number and self-grooming were reduced and no alterations on physical patterns, behavioral development and exploratory activity were found; 2) striatal dopamine and metabolites levels were smaller in these animal, without differences in noradrenaline and serotonin levels and turnover; 3) play behavior and adult\'s social interaction parameters were reduced; no alterations on cerebral morphology, catalepsy and stereotypy were observed. It was suggested that these animals presented emotional and motivational deficits, but no motor alterations.

A Cardiomiopatia Chagásica Crônica (CCC) é o elemento mórbido mais importante da Doença de Chagas e sua elucidação se tornou fundamental. Estudos da imunologia da CCC demonstram que o sistema imune desempenha um papel duplo no curso da doença, agindo de forma a controlar as formas parasitárias e ainda promovendo lesão tissular. Porém, pouco se sabe do papel das células estruturais, tais como os cardiomiócitos, no curso da doença. Sabe-se que, em outras patologias cardíacas, o IFN-γ, citocina produzida em abundância no coração dos pacientes com CCC, determina o priming de diversas populações celulares, modulando positivamente a sua resposta. Cardiomiócitos HL-1 e animais C3H/HePas foram primados com IFN-γ e desafiados com LPS para a dosagem de citocinas, simulando quadro agudo e crônico de infecção. Neste trabalho, determinamos que o IFN-γ modula positivamente a produção de diversas citocinas in vitro por células HL-1 (IP-10, MCP-1, G-CSF, RANTES, MIG, IL-6, MIF) e também in vivo no coração (IP-10, KC, G-CSF, LIF e IL-6). Além disso, in vitro, o IFN-γ foi capaz de diminuir a produção de VEGF e GM-CSF em relação aos grupos tratados apenas com LPS. Os dados corroboram a literatura e permitem concluir que os cardiomiócitos são capazes de participar ativamente da resposta inflamatória no coração e que são sensíveis aos produtos da mesma. O trabalho serve ainda de base para novos estudos sobre o perfil de citocinas expressas no coração no curso da infecção por T. cruzi e como os cardiomiócitos participam da resposta inflamatória em questão. / Chronic Chagasic Cardiomyopathy (CCC) is the most morbid element of Chagas Disease, the elucidation of its physiopathology being fundamental. However, little is known about the role of structural cells, such as cardiomyocytes, in the course of the disease. In other cardiac pathologies, it has been shown that IFN-γ determines the priming of several resident populations, positively modulating their response. In this work, HL-1 cardiomyocytes and C3H/HePas mice were primed with IFN-γ (in brief or extended protocols) and challenged with LPS, the cytokines produced being measured in the supernatants. We observed that IFN-γ positively modulates the in vitro production of many cytokines by HL-1 cells (IP-10, MCP-1, G- CSF, RANTES, MIG, IL-6, MIF) and also their in vivo production at the heart (IP-10, KC, G-CSF, LIF and IL-6). Besides, IFN-γ was able to decrease the LPS-induced production of VEGF and GM-CSF by HL-1 cells. Our data allow us to conclude that cardiomyocytes actively participate in the inflammatory response of the heart, being sensitive to products released by professional immune cells. This work may serve as a basis for further studies on the profile of the cytokines secreted in the heart tissue along the course of cardiac inflammation.

Les microglies, les cellules de l’immunité innée, résidentes du cerveau, sont impliquées dans la réponse inflammatoire cérébrale et le modelage des réseaux neuronaux au cours du développement. La perturbation de leurs activités par des stimuli environnementaux pouvant conduire à des altérations psychopathologiques, dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié le rôle des microglies dans les effets neurobiologiques et comportementaux d’un stimulus inflammatoire. Les travaux précédents ont révélé que l’administration de lipopolysaccharide (LPS), une endotoxine bactérienne, provoque des comportements de type dépressifs. Le rôle des microglies dans ces altérations a fait l’objet de la première étude de cette thèse (Chapitre 2). Afin de dépléter les microglies du cerveau, des souris adultes ont reçu par voie d’administration intra-hippocampique des liposomes contenant du clodronate, provoquant ainsi l’apoptose des microglies phagocytaires. L’administration de LPS active dans l’hippocampe la synthèse de cytokines pro-inflammatoires [interleukine (IL)-1b et facteur de nécrose tumorale (TNF)-a] et anti-inflammatoires (IL-10), et de l'indoleamine 2,3-dioxygénase, une enzyme impliquée dans le métabolisme du tryptophane aux activités pro-dépressives. La déplétion des microglies phagocytaires atténue les effets du LPS, à l’exception de l’IL-1b, dont l’expression est exacerbée. De plus, l’administration de clodronate prévient les effets du LPS sur les comportements de type dépressif. Dans leur ensemble, ces résultats ont révélé que les microglies phagocytaires sont impliquées dans les effets inflammatoires et comportementaux de type dépressif induits par le LPS. Nous avons ensuite étudié le rôle des microglies dans les effets comportementaux d’une inflammation maternelle précoce provoquée lors de la colonisation du cerveau fœtal par les microglies (Chapitres 3 & 4). Ainsi, nous avons administré au jour gestationnel (JG)9.5 du LPS à des souris gestantes et évalué la trajectoire développementale pré- et post-natale des microglies et du comportement de la progéniture (Chapitre 3). L’administration de LPS à JG9.5 provoque une réduction du pourcentage représenté par les microglies matures aux JG14.5 et 18.5 et des déficits comportementaux persistants à l’âge adulte avec un dimorphisme sexuel prononcé. Nous avons alors recherché à identifier les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans les effets du LPS administré à JG9.5, en étudiant la piste de l’action des cytokines inflammatoires (Chapitre 4). Pour cela, nous nous sommes focalisé sur l’IL-1b, la cytokine inflammatoire effectrice principale de l’activité microgliale. L’expression de l'IL-1b et des cytokines associées (IL-6, TNFa et IL-10) augmente dans le plasma maternel, le placenta et le cerveau fœtal, 2 et 4 heures après l’administration de LPS. Ces changements sont accompagnés d'un phénotype microglial immature à JG18.5 et d’une réduction de la population microgliale totale au jour postnatal (JPN)9. À l’âge adulte (JPN65), nous avons observé une modification morphologique de la microglie dans plusieurs structures cérébrales. Enfin, les souris adultes, prénatalement traitées au LPS, développent des altérations des comportements de type sociaux et des comportements répétitifs. Les altérations du nombre de microglies induites par le LPS sont corrélées aux troubles comportementaux, et ce, de façon spécifique en fonction du sexe des souris. Enfin, la co-administration de l'antagoniste du récepteur de l'IL-1 et de LPS chez les femelles gestantes au JG9.5 réduit, voire prévient les effets inflammatoires et comportementaux du LPS. [...] / Recent research on microglia has uncovered a multitude of activities that extends the role of these cells well beyond their traditional function as immune sentinels. The most prominent of these newly described activities is an intricate role in neuronal network remodeling notably upon environmental challenge or during brain development, the disruption of which can result in long lasting consequences relevant to several psychopathologies. We sought, in the current thesis, to identify some of the mechanisms involved. Our initial approach was to target the immune function of microglia, based on our previous findings linking systemic immunogenic challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice with the development of despair-like behavior/depression. Here, we sought to identify immune mediators activated in microglia following a single systemic challenge with LPS (Chapter 2). These studies were conducted in adult mice in which phagocytic microglia were depleted using a single injection of liposomal clodronate in the CA3 region of the hippocampus. LPS challenge significantly upregulated the expression of both pro-inflammatory [interleukin (IL)-1b and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a] and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines compared to saline treated animals. In addition, LPS highly increased the expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), an important rate limiting enzyme for metabolizing tryptophan in the brain and an established indicator of the activation of this depression mediating pathway. Clodronate-mediated depletion attenuated all of these effects apart from IL-1b expression which was further exacerbated. Behavioral assessment of the mice demonstrated a significant LPS-induced increase of immobility in the forced swim test (FST), which was prevented by clodronate. This experimental approach provided a snapshot of the role of inflammation in the development of brain dysfunction mediated by microglia. In subsequent studies (chapter 3 & 4), and in order to perform a more comprehensive, longer-term investigation of microglia activity in neurodevelopment, we utilized a prenatal infection model using LPS to activate maternal immunity at a relatively early [Gestational Day (GD)9.5] time point when microglia colonize the fetal brain to assess the impact on microglial population during development and the subsequent behavior of the progeny (Chapter 3). The results demonstrated LPS reduced the percentage of mature microglial population at GD14.5 and GD18.5 representing mid to late gestation. In addition, prenatal LPS had a significant effect on the offspring’s neonatal as well as adult behavior, with a clear divergence along sex lines in adulthood. In the final study (Chapter 4), we sought to investigate the mechanisms underlying the changes we noted in microglial development and the sexually dimorphic behavioral deficits. For this, we focused on the role played by pro-inflammatory cytokines, particularly IL-1b which represents the main effector of microglial activation following infection or injury. Detailed analysis of the expression of IL-1b and other related cytokines (IL-6, TNF-a and IL-10) revealed an increased expression of these mediators in maternal plasma, placenta and fetal brain, 2 and 4 hours after the prenatal LPS treatment. These changes were accompanied with a decreased percentage of mature microglia in the brain of embryos at GD18.5 and of total microglia population at post-natal day (PND)9. In the adult offspring (PND65), we detected an increased density and altered microglial morphology in specific higher-order structures implicated in complex behaviors, as well as altered social preference and memory and increased repetitive actions. [...]