Worldwide, malaria is one of the deadliest diseases. In 2016 it sickened 216 million people and caused 445,000 deaths. In order to control the spread of this deadly diseases to human, we can either target the mosquito vector (Anopheles gambiae) or the parasite (Plasmodium falciparum). Due to recent emergence of resistance to current insecticides and antimalarial drugs there is a pressing need to discover and develop new agents that engage new targets in these organisms. To circumvent the effect of resistance to pyrethroid insecticides on the efficacy of insecticide treated nets (ITNs), the use of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors on ITNs has drawn attention. In the first project, we explored a small library of γ- substituted oxoisoxazole- 2(3H)-carboxamides and isoxazol-3-yl carbamates, and nitriles as AChE inhibitors targeting wild- type (G3) and resistant (Akron) An. gambiae mosquito. In total 23 compounds were synthesized and evaluated. Both carbamates and carboximides with a 2-cyclopropylethyl side chain (1-87a and 1-88a) were extremely toxic to Akron mosquitos, yet these compounds did not exhibit appreciable selectivity between human and An. gambiae AChE. Unfortunately, none of the nitriles showed appreciable toxicity to G3 strain of the mosquitoes, nor did they inhibit An. gambiae AChE. In the second project, conducted in collaboration with Professor Michael Klemba, we focused on the mode of action of an established antimalarial drug, Mefloquine (MQ). Dr. Klemba's recently developed amino acid efflux assay was used to determine the effect of MQ and its open-ring analogs on hemoglobin endocytosis and catabolism in P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes. In total 26 MQ analogs were synthesized and 18 were studied in depth to determine their potency to inhibit leucine (Leu) efflux and parasite growth (SYBR Green). An excellent correlation (R² = 0.98) over nearly 4 log units was seen for these 18 compounds in the two assays. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that the antimalarial action of these compounds principally derives from inhibition of hemoglobin endocytosis. After this observation, a number of photo-affinity probes were designed and synthesized in hopes of isolating the molecular target of MQ. These analogs are currently being used by Dr. Klemba in pull-down experiments. In the third project, conducted in collaboration with Professor Belen Cassera, we sought to optimize a new antimalarial drug lead that would circumvent current resistance mechanisms. In Plasmodium parasites, the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway is known to be essential for its growth. This pathway is absent in humans, presenting the opportunity to develop potentially safe and effective therapeutic candidates. Previous work in the Cassera and Carlier lab had established that MMV008138 was the only compound in the Malaria Box that targeted the MEP pathway and that it was (1R,3S)-configured. My research expanded previous efforts in the Carlier group and produced synthesis of 73 analogs of MMV008138 (3-21a'1) that were tested for growth inhibition. These analogs featured variation at the A-, B-, C- and D-ring. In the process, a novel Pictet-Spengler ring expansion reaction of ortho-substituted acetphenones was discovered. The ring-expanded products were identified by means of 1D and 2D NMR experiments, HRMS, and X-ray crystallography. Among the 73 analogs prepared, four compounds showed similar growth inhibition potency to the lead 3-21a'1. In particular, the methoxyamide 3-80a, and the fluorinated A-ring analogs 3-124a, 3-124c and 3-124d all showed excellent (500-700 nM) growth IC₅₀ values against P. falciparum. All four showed full rescue upon co-application of IPP (200 μM), confirming that they target the MEP pathway. ADME-Tox evaluation of these new analogs will soon be underway. / PHD

Catharanthus roseus est une plante tropicale qui produit spécifiquement des alcaloïdes indoliques monoterpéniques (AIM) d’intérêt thérapeutique. Chez C. roseus, la branche terpénique incluant la voie du méthylérythritol phosphate (MEP) est considérée comme limitante et présente une régulation transcriptionnelle coordonnée en réponse aux hormones inductrices de l’accumulation alcaloïdique. Lors de ce travail, suite à des analyses bioinformatiques et à la caractérisation de promoteurs de gènes de la voie MEP, nous avons identifié de nouvelles familles de facteurs de transcription impliquées dans la régulation de la biosynthèse des AIM. Des membres de la famille des ZCT, des WRKY et des RR type B interagissent avec le promoteur du gène hds de la voie MEP et régulent son activité. Ces travaux ont permis d’approfondir les connaissances sur les réseaux transcriptionnels régulateurs de la biosynthèse des AIM. L’utilisation de ces nouveaux facteurs de transcription activateurs peut désormais être envisagée dans le cadre d’expériences d’ingénierie métabolique afin d’augmenter l’accumulation d’alcaloïdes d’intérêt pharmaceutique chez C. roseus. / Catharanthus roseus is a tropical plant producing specifically monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIA) of high interest due to their therapeutical values. In C. roseus cells, the terpenoid branch including the methyl erythritol phosphate pathway (MEP) provides the MIA terpenoid moiety and is regarded as limited for MIA biosynthesis. This branch presents a coordinated transcriptional regulation in response to hormonal signals leading to MIA production. In this context, bioinformatic analysises and functional characterization of MEP pathway gene promoters allowed the identification of new transcription factor families involved in the MIA pathway regulation. Members of ZCT proteins, WRKY and type B RR families specifically interact with the hds promoter from the MEP pathway and regulate its activity. This work permits to gain into insight the transcriptional network controlling the MIA biosynthesis. It is possible now to consider using transcription factor that act as activators and target genes from the terpenoid branch to increase the accumulation of alkaloids of pharmaceutical interest in C. roseus by metabolic engineering approaches.

Die transkranielle Magnetstimulation (TMS) ist ein nichtinvasives Hirnstimulationsverfahren, mit welchem sowohl die funktionelle Untersuchung umschriebener kortikaler Regionen als auch die Modulation der Erregbarkeit ebendieser sowie die Induktion neuroplastischer Phänomene möglich ist. Sie wurde in der Vergangenheit insbesondere bei der Erforschung des humanen zentralmotorischen Systems angewandt. Dabei zeigte sich, dass ein einzelner über dem primärmotorischen Areal (M1) applizierter TMS-Puls multiple deszendierende Erregungswellen im Kortikospinaltrakt induzieren kann. Von diesen Undulationen besitzt die D-Welle (direkte Welle) die kürzeste Latenz und sie rekurriert auf eine direkte Aktivierung kortikospinaler Neurone, wohingegen I-Wellen (indirekte Wellen) längere Latenzen besitzen und durch transsynaptische Aktivierung dieser Zellen entstehen. Bemerkenswert ist das periodische Auftreten der letztgenannten Erregungswellen mit einer Periodendauer von etwa 1,5 ms. Zwar sind die genauen Mechanismen noch unbekannt, welche der Entstehung dieser I-Wellen sowie dem Phänomen der I-Wellen-Fazilitierung, das sich in geeigneten TMS-Doppelpulsprotokollen offenbart, zugrunde liegen, jedoch existieren hierzu verschiedene Erklärungsmodelle. Im Mittelpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit steht die repetitive Anwendung eines TMS-Doppelpulsprotokolls, bei dem das Interpulsintervall (IPI) im Bereich der I-Wellen-Periodizität liegt (iTMS) und das gleichsam durch eine Implementierung der I-Wellen-Fazilitierung in der repetitiven TMS charakterisiert ist. Da gezeigt werden konnte, dass iTMS mit einem IPI von 1,5 ms (iTMS_1,5ms) die kortikospinale Erregbarkeit signifikant intra- und postinterventionell zu steigern vermag, und die I-Wellen-Periodizität interindividuellen Schwankungen unterliegt, wurde in der hier vorgestellten Studie an Normalprobanden der Einfluss einer individuellen Anpassung des IPIs (resultierend in der iTMS_adj) auf die intrainterventionelle kortikospinale Erregbarkeit untersucht. In der Tat stellte sich heraus, dass die iTMS_adj der iTMS_1,5ms diesbezüglich überlegen ist. Dieses Ergebnis unterstreicht das Potential einer Individualisierung der interventionellen TMS für erregbarkeitsmodulierende Effekte und macht dasjenige der ohnehin auf physiologische Prozesse abgestimmten iTMS explizit, was insbesondere für klinische Anwendungen relevant sein mag.

Epilepsy, as the most common chronic neurological disease, affects a significant part of population (0.5-1%). Drug resistant epilepsy has a significant negative effect on the quality of life, psychiatric comorbidities, neurocognitive performance and the risk of SUDEP in children. Therefore, resective epilepsy surgery, the only curative treatment of this condition, can fundamentally reverse this unfavorable prognosis. An inevitable prerequisite for a good postoperative result is complete removal of the epileptogenic zone (EC) and preservation of eloquent areas (EC). At present, even with improving and new preoperative non-invasive methods, we don't have an exclusive diagnostic method for theirs delineation. The aim of this PhD study is to assess benefit of individual intraoperative electrophysiological (iEF) methods in pediatric patients with focal intractable epilepsy. The first study evaluates the importance of intraoperative electrocorticography (iECoG) in the localization of EZ. The study proved that iECoG serves as a reliable tool to guide surgical resection and may predict results of epilepsy surgery. iECoG-based modification of surgical plan is not associated with increased risk of significant complications. The second presented study analyzed the contribution of intraoperative electrical...

Il existe plusieurs théories du contrôle moteur, chacune présumant qu’une différente variable du mouvement est réglée par le cortex moteur. On trouve parmi elles la théorie du modèle interne qui a émis l’hypothèse que le cortex moteur programme la trajectoire du mouvement et l’activité électromyographique (EMG) d’une action motrice. Une autre, appelée l’hypothèse du point d’équilibre, suggère que le cortex moteur établisse et rétablisse des seuils spatiaux; les positions des segments du corps auxquelles les muscles et les réflexes commencent à s’activer. Selon ce dernier, les paramètres du mouvement sont dérivés sans pré-programmation, en fonction de la différence entre la position actuelle et la position seuil des segments du corps. Pour examiner de plus près ces deux théories, nous avons examiné l’effet d’un changement volontaire de l’angle du coude sur les influences cortico-spinales chez des sujets sains en employant la stimulation magnétique transcrânienne (TMS) par-dessus le site du cortex moteur projetant aux motoneurones des muscles du coude. L’état de cette aire du cerveau a été évalué à un angle de flexion du coude activement établi par les sujets, ainsi qu’à un angle d’extension, représentant un déplacement dans le plan horizontal de 100°. L’EMG de deux fléchisseurs du coude (le biceps et le muscle brachio-radial) et de deux extenseurs (les chefs médial et latéral du triceps) a été enregistrée. L’état d’excitabilité des motoneurones peut influer sur les amplitudes des potentiels évoqués moteurs (MEPs) élicitées par la TMS. Deux techniques ont été entreprises dans le but de réduire l’effet de cette variable. La première était une perturbation mécanique qui raccourcissait les muscles à l'étude, produisant ainsi une période de silence EMG. La TMS a été envoyée avec un retard après la perturbation qui entraînait la production du MEP pendant la période de silence. La deuxième technique avait également le but d’équilibrer l’EMG des muscles aux deux angles du coude. Des forces assistantes ont été appliquées au bras par un moteur externe afin de compenser les forces produites par les muscles lorsqu’ils étaient actifs comme agonistes d’un mouvement. Les résultats des deux séries étaient analogues. Un muscle était facilité quand il prenait le rôle d’agoniste d’un mouvement, de manière à ce que les MEPs observés dans le biceps fussent de plus grandes amplitudes quand le coude était à la position de flexion, et ceux obtenus des deux extenseurs étaient plus grands à l’angle d’extension. Les MEPs examinés dans le muscle brachio-radial n'étaient pas significativement différents aux deux emplacements de l’articulation. Ces résultats démontrent que les influences cortico-spinales et l’activité EMG peuvent être dissociées, ce qui permet de conclure que la voie cortico-spinale ne programme pas l’EMG à être générée par les muscles. Ils suggèrent aussi que le système cortico-spinal établit les seuils spatiaux d’activation des muscles lorsqu’un segment se déplace d’une position à une autre. Cette idée suggère que des déficiences dans le contrôle des seuils spatiaux soient à la base de certains troubles moteurs d’origines neurologiques tels que l’hypotonie et la spasticité. / According to a dominant theory, the motor cortex is directly involved in pre-programming motor outcome in terms of movement trajectories and electromyographic (EMG) patterns. In contrast, the equilibrium point theory suggests that the motor cortex sets and resets the spatial thresholds, i.e., the positions of body segments at which muscles and reflexes begin to act. Movement parameters thereby emerge without pre-programming, depending on the difference between the actual and the threshold position of the body segments. To choose between these two theories of motor control, we investigated corticospinal influences associated with voluntary changes in elbow joint angle in healthy individuals using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the brain site projecting to motoneurons of the elbow muscles. In order to minimize the influence of motoneuronal excitability on the evaluation of corticospinal influences, motor evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by TMS were obtained during the EMG silent period produced by a brief muscle shortening prior to the TMS pulse. MEPs were obtained at a flexion and an extension elbow angle actively established by subjects. MEPs were recorded from 2 elbow flexors (biceps and brachioradialis) and 2 extensors (medial and lateral heads of triceps). Flexor MEP amplitude was bigger at the elbow flexion position in the case of the biceps and extensor MEPs were bigger at the extension position in both extensors studied (reciprocal pattern). MEPs observed in the brachioradialis did not differ at the two elbow orientations. A similar difference in corticospinal influences at the two elbow positions was often preserved when the tonic activity of elbow muscles was equalized by compensating the passive muscle forces at the two positions with a torque motor. Thus, corticospinal influences and EMG activity were de-correlated and it can be concluded that the corticospinal system is not involved in pre-determining the magnitude of motor commands to muscles. Results suggest that the corticospinal system resets the spatial thresholds for muscle activation when segments move from one position to another. This implies that deficits in spatial threshold control may underlie different neurological motor problems (e.g., hypotonia and spasticity).

Neuronavigation and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) are valuable tools in clinical and research environment. Neuronavigation provides visual guidance of a given instrument during procedures of neurological interventions, relative to anatomic images. In turn, TMS allows the non-invasive study of cortical brain function and to treat several neurological disorders. Despite the well-accepted importance of both techniques, high-cost of neuronavigation systems and limited spatial accuracy of TMS in targeting brain structures, limit their applications. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to i) develop an open-source, free neuronavigation software, ii) study a possible combination of neuronavigation and 3D printing for surgical planning, and iii) construct a multi-channel TMS coil with electronic control of electric field (E-field) orientation. In the first part, we developed and characterized a neuronavigation software compatible with multiple spatial tracking devices, the InVesalius Navigator. The created co-registration algorithm enabled tracking position and orientation of instruments with an intuitive graphical interface. Measured accuracy was similar to that of commercial systems. In the second part, we created 3D printed models from patients with neurological disorders and assessed the errors of localizing anatomical landmarks during neuronavigation. Localization errors were below 3 mm, considered acceptable for clinical applications. Finally, in the last part, we combined a set of two thin, overlapping coils to allow electronic control of the E-field orientation and investigated how the motor evoked responses depend on the stimulus orientation. The developed coil enabled the stimulation of the motor cortex with high angular resolution. Motor responses showed the highest amplitude and lowest latency with E-field approximately perpendicular to the central sulcus. In summary, this thesis provides new methods to improve spatial accuracy of techniques to brain interventions. / A neuronavegação e a estimulação magnética transcraniana (EMT ou TMS, do termo em inglês transcranial magnetic stimulation) têm sido apresentadas como ferramentas valiosas em aplicações clínicas e de pesquisa. A neuronavegação possibilita a localização de instrumentos em relação a imagens anatômicas durante procedimentos de intervenção neurológica. Por sua vez, a EMT permite o estudo não invasivo da função cerebral e o tratamento de doenças neurológicas. Apesar da importância de ambas as técnicas, o alto custo dos sistemas de neuronavegação e a reduzida precisão espacial da EMT em ativar estruturas cerebrais limitam suas aplicações. Sendo assim, o objetivo desta tese foi: i) desenvolver um software de neuronavegação gratuito e de código aberto, ii) estudar a combinação entre neuronavegação e impressão 3D para planejamento cirúrgico, e iii) construir uma bobina de EMT multicanal com controle eletrônico da orientação do campo elétrico (CE). Na primeira parte, desenvolvemos e caracterizamos um software de neuronavegação compatível com vários rastreadores espaciais, o InVesalius Navigator. O algoritmo criado possibilitou o rastreamento de instrumentos por uma interface gráfica intuitiva. A precisão medida foi semelhante à de sistemas comerciais. Na segunda parte, imprimimos modelos 3D de pacientes com patologias neurológicas e avaliamos os erros de localização de marcos anatômicos durante a neuronavegação. Os erros de localização foram inferiores a 3 mm, considerados aceitáveis para aplicações clínicas. Por fim, na última parte, combinamos duas bobinas sobrepostas para controlar eletronicamente a orientação do CE, e investigamos como as respostas motoras evocadas dependem da orientação da corrente. A bobina desenvolvida possibilitou estimular o córtex motor com alta resolução angular. As respostas motoras apresentaram maior amplitude e menor latência para orientação do CE aproximadamente perpendicular ao sulco central. Em suma, esta tese fornece novos métodos para melhorar a precisão espacial de técnicas de intervenção com o cérebro.

Cette thèse analyse la socialisation politique de 92,6% des eurodéputés polonais au Parlement européen pendant leur premier mandat entre 2004 et 2009. Son objectif est de comprendre ce processus en détail dans cette institution par définition, supranationale et pro-européenne - et donc de préciser concrètement quels acteurs politiques (première partie) se conforment à quoi, pourquoi, où, en combien de temps, comment, grâce à qui ou quoi (seconde partie) et jusqu’à quel point (troisième partie). L’étude montre que la socialisation politique pendant les cinq premières années n’est pas un processus très puissant car elle provoque seulement l’ajustement aux spécificités formelles et informelles de la vie quotidienne et, possiblement, l’approfondissement plus ou moins léger des attitudes et du comportement de base (dans un sens pro- ou anti- européen, en fonction de l’orientation). Autrement dit, elle transforme les novices en experts mais pas en natifs. Soit elle n’intervient que partiellement et il serait alors préférable de qualifier ce qui se passe réellement tout simplement d’intégration politique et non de socialisation politique soit elle nécessite plus de cinq ans, en commençant par l’acquisition des spécificités europarlementaires, puisque cette étape-ci prend déjà parfois même tout le mandat. / This thesis analyses the political socialization of 92.6% of the Polish Members of the European Parliament during their first mandate from 2004 to 2009. Its aim is to understand in full this process in this institution which is by definition supranational and pro-European and therefore to specify concretely which political actors (first part) comply with what, why, where, how long, how, thanks to whom or what (second part) and to what extent (third part). The study shows that political socialization in the first five years is not a very powerful process as it causes only the adjustment to everyday formal and informal specificities and, possibly, a more or less weak deepening of initial attitudes and behavior (in a pro or anti-European sense, according to the orientation). In other words, the process turns newcomers into experts without making them natives. It either occurs only in part, in which case it would be preferable to characterize what actually happens simply as political integration and not as political socialization, or it takes more than five years, starting with the acquisition of Euro-parliamentary specificities, as this stage sometimes already takes the whole mandate.

Les réserves limitées de combustibles fossiles et la pollution entrainée par les gaz produits ouvrent la voie à desressources énergétiques renouvelables (RER) alternatives et prometteuses telles que les ressources solaires (RS)et les ressources éoliennes (RE). Ces ressources sont librement disponibles et respectueuses de l'environnement.Cependant, les RER sont de nature intermittente. Par conséquent, il existe un besoin de lissage des fluctuations depuissance en stockant l'énergie pendant les périodes de surproduction pour la restituer au réseau lorsque lademande énergétique devient importante. Les systèmes de stockage de l'énergie (SSE) peuvent alors être utilisésde manière appropriée à cette fin.L'utilisation de plusieurs sources d'énergie et de stockeurs pour construire des systèmes de puissance hybrides(SPH) exige une stratégie de gestion de l'énergie pour atteindre le minimum de coût des SPH et un équilibre entrela production et la consommation de l'énergie. Cette méthode de gestion de l'énergie est un mécanisme pourobtenir une production d'énergie idéale et pour satisfaire convenablement la demande de charge à rendementrelativement élevé.Dans cette thèse, un SPH intégrant production électrique photovoltaïque, éolienne, une micro-turbine à gaz ainsiqu'un système de stockage de l'électricité par le vecteur hydrogène est considéré. Le but de cette hybridation estde construire un système fiable, qui est en mesure de fournir la charge et qui a la capacité de stocker l'énergieexcédentaire sous forme hydrogène et de la réutiliser plus tard. En outre, le problème d'ombrage partiel dePanneaux Photovoltaïques est étudié de manière approfondie. Une nouvelle solution basée sur des interrupteurssimples et un contrôle par logique floue intégré dans une carte électronique dSPACE a été proposée. Unereconfiguration des panneaux photovoltaïques en temps réel et de déconnexion de ceux ombragés est égalementeffectuée en cherchant à minimiser les pertes de puissance. Le couplage thermique entre ces panneauxphotovoltaïques et un électrolyseur à membrane polymère est également étudié, à l'échelle système. Enrécupérant une partie de l'énergie thermique reçue par les panneaux, une amélioration du rendement du systèmehybride PPVELS MEP est réalisée / The limited reserves of fossil fuel and the pollution gases produced pave the way to promising alternativeRenewable Energy Sources (RESs) such as Solar Energy Sources (SESs) and Wind Energy Sources (WESs).SESs and WESs are freely available and environmentally friendly. However, RESs are intermittent in nature.Therefore, the smoothing of power fluctuations by storing the energy during periods of oversupply and restore it tothe grid when demand becomes necessary. Accordingly, Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) can be appropriatelyused for this purpose.Using several energy sources for constructing HPSs alongside with ESS will require an energy managementstrategy to achieve minimum HPS cost and optimal balance between energy generation and energy consumption.This energy management method is a mechanism to achieve an ideal energy production and to conveniently satisfythe load demand at relatively high efficiency.In this thesis, a Hybrid Power System (HPS) including Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) such as main sourcescombined with Gas Micro-Turbine (GMT) and hydrogen storage system such as Back-up Sources (BKUSs) hasbeen presented. The aim of this hybridization is to build a reliable system, which is able to supply the load andhaving the ability to store the excess energy in hydrogen form and reuse it later when demanded. Consequently, thestored energy at the end of each cycle will be zero and a minimum generated power cost is achieved. In addition,partial shading problem of Photovoltaic (PV) panels is comprehensively studied and a new solution based on simpleswitches and Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) integrated into dSPACE electronic card is created. Consequently, a realtime PV panels reconfiguration and disconnecting shaded ones is performed and minimum power losses isachieved. Then, the PV panels are connected to a Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyser (PEM ELS). Theemitted temperature by the PV panels is transferred to the endothermic element PEM ELS. Consequently, anefficiency enhancement of the hybrid system PVPEM ELS is realized.

The recent emergence of a number of new viral diseases as well as the re-emergence of tuberculosis (TB), indicate an urgent need for new drugs against viral and bacterial infections. Coronavirus nsp1 has been shown to induce suppression of host gene expression and interfere with host immune response. However, the mechanism behind this is currently unknown. Here we present the first nsp1 structure from an alphacoronavirus, Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) nsp1. Contrary to previous speculation, the TGEV nsp1 structure clearly shows that alpha- and betacoronavirus nsp1s have a common evolutionary origin. However, differences in conservation, shape and surface electrostatics indicate that the mechanism for nsp1-induced suppression of host mRNA translation is likely to be different in the alpha- and betacoronavirus genera. The Modoc virus is a neuroinvasive rodent virus with similar pathology as flavivirus encephalitis in humans. The flaviviral methyltransferase catalyses the two methylations required to complete 5´ mRNA capping, essential for mRNA stability and translation. The structure of the Modoc NS5 methyltransferase domain was determined in complex with its cofactor S-adenosyl-L-methionine. The observed methyltransferase conservation between Modoc and other flaviviral branches, indicates that it may be possible to identify drugs that target a range of flaviviruses and supports the use of Modoc virus as a model for general flaviviral studies. 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR) is part of the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway that produces essential precursors for isoprenoid biosynthesis. This pathway is used by a number of pathogens, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Plasmodium falciparum, but it is not present in humans. Using a structure-based approach, we designed a number of MtDXR inhibitors, including a novel fosmidomycin-analogue that exhibited improved activity against P.falciparum in an in vitro blood cell growth assay. The approach also allowed the first design of an inhibitor that bridge both DXR substrate and co-factor binding sites, providing a stepping-stone for further optimization.

No description available.