O objetivo deste trabalho foi estabelecer uma metodologia de calibração em termos de dose absorvida na água para câmaras de ionização de placas paralelas a serem utilizadas em feixes de radiação X de energia baixa (10 kV a 100 kV) para fins terapêuticos. Atualmente, no Brasil nenhum laboratório de calibração está oferecendo este tipo de serviço. Para o estabelecimento desta metodologia de calibração foram utilizadas duas câmaras de ionização PTW modelos 23344. Ambas as câmaras foram caracterizadas e testadas qualitativamente segundo recomendações de normas internacionais. Os testes de caracterização realizados foram: a medição da taxa de dose mínima efetiva, a curva de saturação, a eficiência da coleção de íons, a resposta quanto ao efeito da polaridade e a linearidade da câmara com a resposta. Os testes de controle de qualidade aplicados foram: estabilidade em curto e longo prazos, fuga de corrente sem irradiação, fuga de corrente após-irradiação e tempo de estabilização. Para a implantação da metodologia, foram estabelecidas as qualidades de radiação de T-10 a T-100, seguindo as recomendações do código de prática da AIEA. Desta forma, foi possível determinar a grandeza de referência, dose absorvida na água, utilizando-se as duas câmaras de ionizações e em todas as qualidades estabelecidas. / The objective of this study was to establish a calibration methodology in terms of absorbed dose to water for parallel plate ionization chambers to be used in low energy X rays beams (10kV to 100kV) for therapy purposes. Currently, in Brazil no calibration laboratory is offering this type of service. In order to establish this calibration methodology was used two ionization chambers PTW models 23344. Both chambers were characterized and tested qualitatively according to recommendations of international standards. The characterization tests performed were: measuring the effective minimum dose rate, the saturation curve, the efficiency of ions collection, polarity effect and the linearity of the ionization chamber with the response. The quality control tests applied were: stability in the short and long term, leakage current without irradiation, leakage current after irradiation and settling time. For the implementation of the methodology, the radiation qualities the T- 10 to T-100 were established, following the recommendations of the IAEA code of practice. Thus, it was possible to determine the magnitude of reference absorbed dose in water, using the two ionization chambers in the all established qualities.

O uso de Tomografia Computadorizada (CT) para procedimentos de imagiologia vem crescendo cada vez mais devido aos avanços da tecnologia dos equipamentos de CT, que permitem a obtenção de imagens com melhor resolução do que por outras técnicas, sendo consequentemente responsável pelo aumento da dose de radiação no paciente durante o procedimento. Isso acarretou uma maior preocupação com as doses recebidas pelos pacientes que se submetem a esse tipo de exame. Para a realização da dosimetria de feixes de CT, o instrumento mais utilizado é a câmara de ionização do tipo lápis, pois este dosímetro apresenta uma resposta uniforme ao feixe de radiação incidente em todos os ângulos. A câmara convencional que se encontra disponível no mercado apresenta um comprimento de volume sensível de 10 cm; entretanto, alguns estudos têm mostrado que esse dosímetro tem subestimado os valores de dose. Portanto, neste trabalho optou-se por desenvolver no Laboratório de Calibração de Instrumentos do Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares (LCI-IPEN/CNEN) duas câmaras de ionização, fazendo uso de materiais nacionais de baixo custo, com comprimentos de volume sensível de 10 cm e 30 cm. A caracterização destas câmaras foi realizada e os resultados se apresentaram dentro dos limites recomendáveis internacionais. Como uma aplicação, as câmaras desenvolvidas, juntamente com uma câmara comercial, foram testadas em um tomógrafo clínico. As câmaras de ionização desenvolvidas foram analisadas de maneira completa, para os seus possíveis usos. / The use of computed tomography (CT) for imaging procedures is growing due to advances in the CT equipment technology, because they allow the obtention of images with better resolution than through other techniques. Therefore, they are responsible for increasing the dose radiation of patients during the procedure. This fact led to a greater concern about the doses received by patients who undergo this type of examination. To perform the dosimetry in CT beams, the most widely used instrument is the pencil type ionization chamber, because this dosimeter has a uniform response to the incident radiation beam for all angles. The conventional ionization chamber, which is available on the market, has a sensitive volume length of 10 cm; however, some studies have shown that this dosimeter has underestimated the dose values. Therefore, in this study two ionization chambers with sensitive volume lengths of 10 cm and 30 cm, making use of low cost national materials, were developed at the Calibration Laboratory of Instruments (LCI-IPEN/CNEN). The characterization of these chambers was performed, and the results were obtained within the international recommended limits. As an application, the developed ionization chambers and a commercial chamber were tested in a clinical tomographer. The developed ionization chambers were analyzed in a complete way for their possible uses.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-27T17:05:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Luiz Antonio Citty da Costa.pdf: 975694 bytes, checksum: 14e1fb858f4bac7446f3146a6b8fa32e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-08-24 / The conformity trend evaluation results of manual wheelchairs simple model, made by Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia (INMETRO) according to the perception of wheelchair users through this work, showed the need to develop an appropriate regulatory wheelchairs system, setting up safety requirements to ensure the integrity of user during use, considering that the wheelchair is used as a means of locomotion for disabled / Os resultados na avaliação de tendência da conformidade das cadeiras de rodas manuais de modelo simples, realizada pelo Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia INMETRO, em conjunto com a percepção de usuários cadeirantes através do presente trabalho, mostraram a necessidade de elaborar um sistema adequado de regulamentação das cadeiras de rodas, estabelecendo-se requisitos de segurança para garantir ao usuário a sua integridade durante a utilização, considerando-se que a cadeira de rodas é utilizada como meio de locomoção para portadores de deficiência

Digital cameras are increasingly used for measurement tasks within engineering scenarios, often being part of metrology platforms. Existing cameras are well equipped to provide 2D information about the fields of view (FOV) they observe, the objects within the FOV, and the accompanying environments. But for some applications these 2D results are not sufficient, specifically applications that require Z dimensional data (depth data) along with the X and Y dimensional data. New designs of camera systems have previously been developed by integrating multiple cameras to provide 3D data, ranging from 2 camera photogrammetry to multiple camera stereo systems. Many earlier attempts to record 3D data on 2D sensors have been completed, and likewise many research groups around the world are currently working on camera technology but from different perspectives; computer vision, algorithm development, metrology, etc. Plenoptic or Lightfield camera technology was defined as a technique over 100 years ago but has remained dormant as a potential metrology instrument. Lightfield cameras utilize an additional Micro Lens Array (MLA) in front of the imaging sensor, to create multiple viewpoints of the same scene and allow encoding of depth information. A small number of companies have explored the potential of lightfield cameras, but in the majority, these have been aimed at domestic consumer photography, only ever recording scenes as relative scale greyscale images. This research considers the potential for lightfield cameras to be used for world scene metrology applications, specifically to record absolute coordinate data. Specific interest has been paid to a range of low cost lightfield cameras to; understand the functional/behavioural characteristics of the optics, identify potential need for optical and/or algorithm development, define sensitivity, repeatability and accuracy characteristics and limiting thresholds of use, and allow quantified 3D absolute scale coordinate data to be extracted from the images. The novel output of this work is; an analysis of lightfield camera system sensitivity leading to the definition of Active Zones (linear data generation good data) and In-active Zones (non-linear data generation poor data), development of bespoke calibration algorithms that remove radial/tangential distortion from the data captured using any MLA based camera, and, a light field camera independent algorithm that allows the delivery of 3D coordinate data in absolute units within a well-defined measurable range from a given camera.

[pt] Um novo modelo de polarímetro, baseado em lâminas de birrefringência variável controladas por atuadores piezoelétricos, é apresentado e construído. O dispositivo é baseado na divisão no tempo do sinal luminoso e, comparado a outros modelos de sua categoria, apresenta uma série de atrativos, como baixo custo e simplicidade. É realizada uma comparação de resultados entre o polarímetro desenvolvido e um polarímetro comercial para luz polarizada e parcialmente polarizada. / [en] A new polarimeter model, based on time-varying birefringence caused by piezoelectric-controlled fiber- squeezing plates, is presented and constructed. The device is based on time division of the light signal and, in comparison with other polarimeters of its kind, features many advantages, like low cost and simplicity. The results given by the new polarimeter and a commercial one are compared, using polarized and partially polarized light.

Engenharia reversa é o conceito de se produzir uma peça tomando como base um original ou modelo físico existentes, sem o uso de desenhos de engenharia. Empresas se voltam para a tecnologia da Engenharia Reversa como um complemento valioso para toda a gama de ferramentas CAD/CAM que elas possuem, devido às dificuldades encontradas quando se necessita trabalhar com superfícies de forma livre. Desta forma, faz-se necessária uma ferramenta que proporcione a inserção das formas deste modelo em um sistema CAD, de forma que se possa usufruir de todas as possibilidades, oferecidas por ele. Neste trabalho, é apresentada uma revisão bibliográfica que aborda a engenharia reversa desde sua origem até as técnicas avançadas existentes atualmente, ou seja, apresentando equipamentos e sistemas específicos usados atualmente para a prática de engenharia reversa. Mostra-se um sistema de engenharia reversa, que foi projetado e implementado realizando a integração desde uma máquina de medir 3 coordenadas até um centro de usinagem CNC com o auxílio de um software CAD comercial, o qual possui módulo de CAM integrado. São apresentados também 3 estudos de casos. / Reverse engineering is the concept of making a part based on an original or existing physical model, without engineering drawings. Companies are using reverse engineering technology as a valuable complement to many of their CAD/CAM tools, due to their difficulties of working with free-form surfaces. It is necessary a tool which provides the insertion of the model forms in the CAD system, therefore enabling to take advantages of all possibilities offered by the system. The Reverse Engineering has developed beyond the traditional copy milling. It is presented a review of the reverse engineering since its origin until recent advanced techniques, where the equipments and specific systems used for reverse engineering practice nowadays are showed. In this work a reverse engineering system has been designed and implemented, which is accomplished by the integration from the coordinate measuring machine until a CNC machining center, by using a commercial CAD software with integrated CAM module. In order to validate the system developed, three case studies are also presented.

Esse trabalho foi desenvolvido com a finalidade de melhorar a qualidade dos serviços de calibração e testes de monitores de radiação gama, prestados pelo Laboratório de Calibração de Instrumentos do IPEN, assim como diminuir a dose ocupacional dos técnicos envolvidos no processo de calibração, seguindo os princípios de proteção radiológica. Foi realizado o desenvolvimento e a implantação de um sistema automatizado para o processo de calibração de monitores de radiação gama, constituido por (i) um dispositivo pneumático de troca dos atenuadores e (ii) uma mesa de posicionamento, ambos acionados remotamente por intermédio de um painel de comando. Também fez parte a implantação de um Sistema Irradiador Caesa-Gammatron, que aumentou o intervalo de taxa de kerma no ar, devido sua alta atividade em relação ao sistema atualmente em uso no laboratório de calibração com radiação gama. Para isso, foi necessária a instalação de um dispositivo atenuador controlado remotamente nesse sistema irradiador. Por último foi realizado uma avaliação da redução da dose ocupacional. / This work was developed with the aim of improving the quality of the services of calibration and tests of gamma radiation monitors - provided by the IPEN Laboratory of Instrument Calibration - as well as reducing the occupational dose in technicians involved in the process of calibration, following the principles of radiation protection. In this study it was carried out the development and implementation of a system for adequation of the process of gamma radiation monitors calibration. It is constituted by (i) a pneumatic dispositive to exchange the attenuators and (ii) a positioning table, both actuated through a control panel. System was also implemented. A Caesa-Gammatron Irradiator, which increased the range of the air kerma rates, due to its activity higher than the current system of gamma radiation in use in the calibration laboratory. Hence, it was necessary the installation of remotely controlled in the attenuator dispositive in this irradiator system. Lastly, it was carried out an evaluation in the reduction of the occupational doses.

Les références actuelles, pour les rayons X de moyenne énergie en radiothérapie, sont établies au LNHB en termes de kerma dans l’air. La dose absorbée dans l’eau, grandeur d’intérêt pour la radiothérapie, est déduite de ces valeurs par transfert conformément aux protocoles internationaux. Ce travail de thèse a permit d’établir les références en termes de dose absorbée dans l’eau dans les conditions de référence des protocoles en utilisant la méthode de calorimétrie dans l’eau. La calorimétrie est la mesure de la dose absorbée à partir de l’élévation de température. Un « calorimètre-eau » a été conçu et réalisé afin d’effectuer des mesures à 2 cm de profondeur : conditions de référence définies par le protocole AIEA TRS-398. Les débits de dose absorbée dans l’eau ainsi déterminés ont été comparés aux valeurs issues de l’application des protocoles fondés sur le kerma dans l’air. Un écart maximum inférieur à 2.1 % a été trouvé par rapport à la calorimétrie. L’incertitude type associée aux valeurs calorimétriques étant inférieure à 0.8 % et celle associée aux valeurs issues des protocoles étant de l’ordre de 3.0 %, les résultats sont compatibles aux incertitudes des méthodes près. Grâce à ces nouvelles références, la détermination de la dose absorbée dans l’eau dans ce type de faisceau pourra désormais être réalisée en appliquant le protocole AIEA TRS-398, conduisant ainsi à une forte réduction des incertitudes (facteur 3 par rapport au protocole AIEA TRS-277). Actuellement, aucun autre laboratoire primaire ne possède un tel instrument permettant l’établissement direct de ces références dans les conditions recommandées par les protocoles. / LNE-LNHB current references for medium energy X-rays are established in terms of air kerma. Absorbed dose to water, which is the quantity of interest for radiotherapy, is obtained by transfer dosimetric techniques following a methodology described in international protocols. The aim of the thesis is to establish standards in terms of absorbed dose to water in the reference protocol conditions by water calorimetry. The basic principle of water calorimetry is to measure the absorbed dose from the rise in temperature of water under irradiation. A calorimeter was developed to perform measurements at a 2 cm depth in water according to IAEA TRS-398 protocol for medium energy x-rays. Absorbed dose rates to water measured by calorimetry were compared to the values established using protocols based on references in terms of air kerma. A difference lower than 2.1% was reported. Standard uncertainty of water calorimetry being 0.8%, the one associated to the values from protocols being around 3.0%, results are consistent considering the uncertainties. Thanks to these new standards, it will be possible to use IAEA TRS-398 protocol to determine absorbed dose to water: a significant reduction of uncertainties is obtained (divided by 3 by comparison with the application of the IAEA TRS-277 protocol). Currently, none of the counterparts’ laboratories own such an instrument allowing direct determination of standards in the reference conditions recommended by the international radiotherapy protocols.

En tant que laboratoire national pour la métrologie des rayonnements ionisants, le Laboratoire National Henri Becquerel met au point les méthodes de mesures absolues pour établir les références dosimétriques. Il dispose, entre autres, de références dans des faisceaux de rayons X utilisés en radiothérapie et ayant une taille de champ comprise entre 10 et 2 cm de côté. Afin de s’approcher des plus petits champs utilisés en clinique, la miniaturisation des détecteurs absolus n’étant pas possible, il est proposé dans cette thèse de remplacer la dose absorbée en un point par le produit dose surface (PDS). L’applicabilité du PDS mesuré à l’aide de dosimètres dont la surface sensible est plus grande que celle du champ de rayonnement a été vérifiée. Ainsi, un calorimètre graphite avec une surface sensible de 3 cm de diamètre a été conçu, construit et testé. En vue du transfert des références dosimétriques à l’utilisateur, une chambre d’ionisation de même diamètre a elle aussi été réalisée et testée. Son coefficient d’étalonnage en termes de PDS a été déterminé dans des faisceaux circulaires de 2, 1 et 0.75 cm de diamètre avec une incertitude type inférieure à 0.7 %. La distribution relative de la dose absorbée dans l’eau en deux dimensions a été mesurée au moyen d’un dosimètre diamant, d’une chambre d’ionisation PinPoint et de films gafchromiques, pour lesquels un protocole de lecture spécifique a été mis au point. Les résultats dans le faisceau de 2 cm de diamètre ont montré un bon accord entre les approches en termes de PDS et de dose absorbée dans l’eau en un point, après application des facteurs de correction obtenus au moyen de simulations Monte Carlo et des mesures de distribution de dose. Les coefficients d’étalonnage de la chambre d’ionisation de grandes dimensions établis dans les champs de 1 et 0.75 cm de diamètre sont compatibles aux incertitudes près mais s’écartent de -2.6 % de celui établi dans le champ de 2 cm de diamètre. L’utilisation du PDS nécessite donc une surface de détection notablement plus grande que la section du mini-Faisceau. / The French primary standard dosimetry laboratory “Laboratoire National Henri Becquerel” is in charge of the establishment of dosimetric standards for ionizing radiation beams. Absolute dose measurements are thus available for X-Ray beams used in radiotherapy for field sizes between 10 and 2 cm. Since the miniaturization of absolute dosimeters is not possible for smaller field sizes, a dose area product (DAP) has been suggested as a substitute to the absorbed dose at a point.In order to measure a DAP with dosimeters which sensitive surface is larger than the beam, a graphite calorimeter with a sensitive surface of 3 cm diameter was designed, built and tested. An ionization chamber with the same diameter was realized and tested to transfer the dosimetric references to the end users. Its calibration factor in terms of DAP was determined in circular beams of 2, 1 and 0.75 cm diameter with an uncertainty smaller than 0.7 %. The two-Dimension relative dose distribution was measured thanks to a diamond dosimeter, a PinPoint ionization chamber and gafchromic films, using a specific protocol.Both approaches, respectively based on a PDS and an absorbed dose to water at a point, were in good agreement in the 2 cm beam. Correction factors determined from Monte Carlo simulations and measured dose distributions were needed for this comparison. The calibration factor of the large ionization chamber in the 1 and 0.75 cm diameter beams were in good agreement within the uncertainties but a gap of -2.6 % was found with the one established in the 2 cm diameter beam. As a result, the DAP can be used if the sensitive surface is much larger than the beam section.

La méthode de mesure de référence du débit d’émission de sources neutroniques se fonde sur la technique du bain de manganèse. Elle est destinée à étalonner des sources de neutrons utilisant des radionucléides (241AmBe, 239PuBe, 252Cf,…) en termes de débit d’émission neutronique sous 4π sr. Ce dispositif est complété par un banc de mesure de l’anisotropie d’émission utilisant un support rotatif et un compteur long de type BF3. La source à mesurer est immergée dans une solution de sulfate de manganèse et les neutrons émis sont capturés par les constituants du bain. Dans une configuration classique (sphère de bain de manganèse de 1 m de diamètre et solution concentrée), environ la moitié de ces neutrons conduisent à la création de 56Mn par réaction (n, γ) sur 55Mn. Le radionucléide 56Mn a une période radioactive d’environ 2,6 heures et le bain de manganèse atteint son activité de saturation en 56Mn quand le nombre d’atomes radioactifs créés par unité de temps devient égal au nombre d’atomes se désintégrant pendant ce même temps. Le débit d’émission de la source peut alors être déduit de l’activité en 56Mn de la solution à saturation, via une modélisation ad hoc des réactions nucléaires se produisant dans le bain. Cette installation a été récemment rénovée au LNE-LNHB afin de respecter les règles de sécurité et de radioprotection en vigueur. Cette rénovation a été l’occasion de moderniser et de remettre à niveau les méthodes de mesure et de modélisation du bain et d’entreprendre une étude sur le développement d’un détecteur original pour la mesure directe en ligne de l’activité du manganèse. Ce détecteur est fondé sur la méthode de mesure par coïncidences β-γ. La voie bêta est constituée de deux photomultiplicateurs permettant de détecter l’émission de lumière due à l’effet Cerenkov et la voie gamma utilise un détecteur à scintillateur solide. L’intérêt de cette méthode de mesure est qu’elle permet d’avoir accès à l’activité du bain sans nécessiter d’étalonnage préalable, contrairement à la méthode classique qui utilise un compteur gamma et nécessite la fabrication d’une source de haute activité. Le principe de mesure a été validé à l'aide d'un prototype de détecteur et d'une modélisation effectuée à l'aide du code de calcul stochastique GEANT4. Le détecteur définitif a été réalisé et les mesures obtenues ont été comparées à celles données par une méthode primaire présente au laboratoire. Par ailleurs, des modélisations du bain de manganèse effectuées sous GEANT4, MCNPX et FLUKA, ont été comparées afin de choisir le code le plus fiable. Cette comparaison a permis d'identifier des lacunes notamment dans le code GEANT4 ainsi que des facteurs d'incertitude nécessitant une attention particulière, tels que la modélisation de l'émission neutronique et le choix des sections efficaces. Enfin, un étalonnage de source neutronique a été réalisé grâce à la méthode Cerenkov-gamma et aux facteurs correctifs donnés par la nouvelle modélisation du bain sous MCNPX. Ces mesures ont été complétées dans le cadre d'une comparaison comprenant également des mesures par l'ancienne méthode après étalonnage du couple bain/détecteur par irradiation d'une cible de manganèse en réacteur. Au terme de cette étude, plusieurs voies d'améliorations ont été proposées, dont certaines font déjà l'objet de travaux au LNHB. / The manganese bath technique is the reference method for neutron source emission rates calibration. It is used to calibrate neutron sources using radionuclides (AmBe, PuBe, 252Cf,…) in terms of neutron emission rate under 4π sr. As a complement to this technique, the anisotropy of the source is measured using a rotating source holder and a neutron long counter. The neutron source to be measured is immersed in a manganese sulphate solution whereby the emitted neutrons are captured within the bath contents. In a typical configuration (a 1m diameter sphere and a concentrated solution), approximately half of the neutrons lead to the creation of 56Mn via the 55Mn(n, γ) capture reaction. The 56Mn radionuclide has a half-life of approximately 2.6 hours and the bath reaches saturation when the number of nuclei decaying is equal to the number of nuclei created per unit time. The neutron emission rate from the source can then be deduced from the 56Mn activity at saturation, assuming proper modelling of the nuclear reactions occuring in the bath. The manganese bath facility at LNE-LNHB has been recently refurbished in order to comply with appropriate safety and radioprotection regulations. This has lead to the upgrading of both the measurement methodology and the modelling of the bath, and a study on the development of a new detector for the on-line measurement of the manganese activity was started. This new detector uses the β-γ coincidence measurement method. The bêta channel consists of two photomultipliers tubes which allow the detection of Cerenkov light, and the gamma channel uses a solid scintillation detector. The advantage of this measurement method is that it allows the determination of the bath activity without any prior calibration, unlike the former method which uses a gamma-ray detector calibrated using a high activity manganese source. The principle of the Cerenkov-gamma coincidence measurement has been validated by a prototype of the detector and via modelling of the system using the stochastic transport code GEANT4. The final detector has also been made and the results obtained have been compared to those from a primary measurement method already in use at LNE-LNHB. Furthermore, a comparison of the results from modelling the manganese bath with GEANT4, MCNPX and FLUKA have been undertaken to find the most reliable code. This comparison lead to the identification of various weaknesses, particularly in GEANT4, and several uncertainty factors, such as the modeling of the neutron emission and the choice of the cross-section library. Finally, neutron source calibration has been carried out with the Cerenkov-gamma method and the correction factors given by the new modeling of the bath using MCNPX. These results have been complemented with a comparison with the former method simultaneously undertaken, after calibration of the detector in the bath using a 56Mn source irradiated in a nuclear reactor. At the end of this study, several improvements have been proposed, from which a number are currently under development at LNE-LNHB.