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This thesis centres around a sensory theory of protolanguage emergence, or STP. The STP proposes that shared biases to make associations between sensory modalities provided the basis for the emergence of a shared protolinguistic lexicon. Crucially, this lexicon would have been grounded in our perceptual systems, and thus fundamentally non-arbitrary. The foundation of such a lexicon lies in shared cross-modal associations: biases shared among language users to map properties in one modality (e.g., visual size) onto another (e.g., vowel sounds). While there is broad evidence that we make associations between a variety of modalities (Spence, 2011), this thesis focuses specifically on associations involving linguistic sound, arguing that these associations would have been most important in language emergence. Early linguistic utterances, by virtue of their grounding in shared cross-modal associations, could be formed and understood with high mutual intelligibility. The first chapter of the thesis will outline this theory in detail, addressing the nature of the proposed protolanguage system, arguing for the utility of non-arbitrariness at the point of language emergence, and proposing evidence for the likely transition form a non-arbitrary protolanguage to the predominantly arbitrary language systems we observe today. The remainder of the thesis will focus on providing empirical evidence to support this theory in two ways: (i) presenting experimental data showing evidence of shared associations between linguistic sound and other modalities, and (ii) providing evidence that such associations are evident cross-linguistically, despite the predominantly arbitrary nature of modern languages. Chapter two will examine well-documented associations between vowel quality and physical size (e.g., /i/ is small, and /a/ is large; Sapir, 1929). This chapter presents a new experimental approach which fails to find robust associations between vowel quality and size absent the use of a forced choice paradigm. Chapter three turns to associations between linguistic sound and shape angularity, taking a critical perspective on the classic takete/maluma experiment (Kohler, 1929). New empirical evidence shows that the acquisition of visual word forms plays a highly influential role in mediating associations between linguistic sound and angularity, but that associations between linguistic sound and visual form also play a minor role in auditory tasks. Chapter four will examine a relatively unexplored modality: taste. A simple survey which asks participants to choose non-words to match representative tastes shows that certain linguistic sounds are preferred for certain food items. In a more detailed study, we use a more direct perceptual matching task with actual tastants and synthesises speech sounds, further showing that people make robust shared associations between linguistic sound and taste. Chapter five returns to the visual modality, considering previously unexmained associations between linguistic sound and motion, specifically the feature of speed. This study demonstrates that people do make robust associations between the two modalities, particularly for vowel quality. Chapter six will aim to take a different empirical approach, considering non-arbitrariness in natural language. Motivated by the experimental data from the previous chapters, we turn to corpus analyses to assess the presence of non-arbitrariness in natural language which concurs with behavioural data showing linguistic cross-modal associations. First, a corpus analysis of taste synonyms in English shows small but significant correlations between form and meaning. With the goal of addressing the universality of specific sound-meaning associations, we examine cross-linguistic corpora of taste and motion terms, showing that particular phonological features tend to connect to certain tastes and types of motion across genetically and geographically distinct languages. Lastly, the thesis will conclude by considering the STP in light of the empirical evidence presented, and suggesting possible future empirical directions to explore the theory more broadly.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Western Australia, 2006.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Syracuse University, 2008. / "Publication number: AAT 3333576."

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-03T11:52:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-05-30Bitstream added on 2015-03-03T12:06:19Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000809507.pdf: 388847 bytes, checksum: 72ab0d94bfb712bcf7908bea1cd38b53 (MD5) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Com base em um paradigma funcionalista da linguagem, o objetivo desta dissertação é avaliar a relação existente entre condicionalidade e modalização epistêmica, a ser obtida em análise de corpora disponíveis de língua falada e língua escrita contemporânea do Português do Brasil. Partiu-se da análise da condicional se (eu) não me engano para verificar se, e de que modo, essa condicional atua como modalizador epistêmico, assentada a hipótese de que ela leva a proposição a que se liga para o campo do possível. O exame desse papel de validação que aqui se propõe passou pela avaliação da diferença entre se (eu) não me engano e as condicionais prototípicas. A primeira verificação que se fez é que se (eu) não me engano não apresenta um comportamento prototípico de condicionalidade uma vez que não se relaciona com a apódose em tal linha direta de condicionalidade, embora se institua no nível da proposição. Para este trabalho foram pertinentes incursões relacionadas aos seguintes campos de investigação lingüística: relação entre condicionalidade, modalidade, evidencialidade e (inter)subjetividade; possibilidade e relevância da inserção de se (eu) não me engano em algum ponto do processo de gramaticalização; pertinência da mobilidade sintática para a definição de sua natureza modal; caracterização do tipo de âmbito de incidência da modalização. A partir dessas incursões foi feita uma descrição, com base em dados quantitativos e qualitativos, do comportamento sintático, semântico e pragmático de se (eu) não me engano. A principal observação que se fez é que essa condicional pode ser avaliada como um modalizador epistêmico, uma vez que atua sobre um âmbito de incidência, relativizando o seu valor de verdade / Based on a functionalist paradigm of the language, the objective of this thesis is to evaluate the existing relationship between epistemic modality and conditionality, obtained by analyzing the available corpora in spoken and written contemporary Brazilian Portuguese language. The staring point was the analysis of the conditional form se (eu) não me engano (if I'm not mistaken) to verify whether and how this conditional acts as an epistemic modalizer, assuring the hypothesis that this conditional takes the proposition to which it is connected to the field of possibility. The examination of this validation role that is proposed here went through the evaluation of the difference between the se (eu) não me engano conditional and the prototypical conditionals. The first verification that was made is that the se (eu) não me engano does not present a prototypical behavior of conditionality, since it does not relate to the apodosis in a direct line of conditionality, although it institutes itself on the level of proposition. Some incursions related to the following fields of linguistic investigation were relevant on this work: relationship between conditionality, modality, evidentiality and e (inter)subjectivity; possibility and relevance of the insertion of the se (eu) não me engano in some point of the grammaticalization process; relevance of syntactic mobility on the definition of its modal nature; characterization of the type of context of the modalization. A description of the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic behavior of the se (eu) não me engano was rendered from these incursions, based on quantitative and qualitative data. The major observation made is that this conditional can be valued as an epistemic modalizer, since it acts upon a scope of incidence, relativizing its value of verity

In this essay a theory of proper names is developed and applied to the construction of quantified modal logics and to a discussion of problems concerning identity across possible worlds. The theory is then used to aid discussion of essentialism, empty singular terms, quantification into epistemic contexts, and Frege' s problem with identity . In the first chapter, after a preliminary discussion of Russell's and Frege's theories of names, a theory is developed. It is argued that in the giving of a name a relation is established between the name and what is named. That relation is the sense of the name. It is also argued that names can be given to imaginary, fictional, and other such non-existent things. The second chapter is devoted to a discussion of Quine's programme for eliminating singular terms. It is there argued that the programme cannot be justified. The third chapter centres around the construction of logical systems to deal with identity across possible worlds. It is assumed that once a name is given and its sense thereby established the name is a rigid designator. Quantificational systems are constructed without modal operators yet in terms of which cross world identity can be discussed. Modal operators are then introduced to facilitate a discussion of essentialism and identity. At each point the formal systems are constructed in accordance with clearly stated assumptions about constant singular terms, the domains of quantification, and the interpretation of modal operators.

IMPORTANCE: Advanced stage head and neck cancers are often deemed unresectable due to the aggressive nature of the cancer. In evaluating survival patterns of patients with stage IVb tumors, it is valuable to determine whether patients who undergo oncological surgery have favorable outcomes in order to deem surgery as a viable treatment option and demonstrate that these patients can survive with adequate treatment. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether patients with stage IVb cancers who undergo oncological surgery have favorable survival outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Of 320 cases reviewed of patients treated for head and neck cancer at Boston Medical Center between June 2009 and October 2014, 18 patients with stage IVb tumors were identified. Information regarding date of initial diagnosis, date and type of treatment, and date of death were extrapolated from medical records. Mean survival rates were calculated to compare survival outcomes of those who received and those who did not receive surgical intervention. RESULTS: The mean survival rate for patients who underwent surgical intervention was found to be 29.5 months while those who did not receive surgical intervention had a mean survival of 20.83 months. CONCLUSION: Cancers of the head and neck are associated with poor prognoses and are often deemed unresectable. Patients should be offered definitive treatment despite recommended palliative treatment, as, with adequate treatment, favorable survival outcomes are attainable.

This thesis is an examination of the linguistic approach to modality (also known as 'linguistic conventionalism') - i.e. the view that necessity is to be explained in terms of the linguistic rules that we have adopted. Drawing on an investigation into the history of this approach, I argue against the currently prevalent attitude that it can be dismissed as misguided. The aim, however, is not to argue that the linguistic approach is correct, but, more modestly, to put it back on the table as an interesting and viable research program. The thesis is divided into three parts. In part A, I articulate a conception of the commitments of the approach based on the ideas that influenced it, how it emerged and developed in the work of the logical positivists, and, in particular, the role it was meant to play in "making a consistent empiricism possible". Next, in part B, I defend the core ideas of the approach against various objections. Notably, I consider the objection that truth cannot be "created" by convention, the objection that necessities cannot be explained in terms of contingencies, and the objection that determining what the linguistic conventions are, unlike determining what the modal facts are, is a straightforwardly empirical matter. In part C, finally, I turn to objections which purport to show that there are limits to what can be explained in terms of linguistic convention. Specifically, I consider whether we need to assume a non-conventional distinction between admissible and inadmissible linguistic rules, a non-conventional consequence relation, or a non-conventional starting-point in order to get the linguistic approach off the ground. An overarching question is whether we are forced to take some logic for granted in a way which would undermine the explanatory ambitions of the approach. I argue that some of the prominent objections rely on misunderstandings, that some can be answered head-on, and that some point to genuine challenges and constraints which put pressure on the linguistic approach, but do not warrant a wholesale rejection of the view. Instead, they point to areas where further work is needed.

Dana Kratochvílová Spanish Modality from the Point of View of Relationships among Modal Meanings (dissertation) Abstract: The present work deals with the so-called grey areas that can be found within the Spanish modal system. In these areas, two different types of modality (modal meanings) can occur. We study the relationship that can be found between potentiality and reality, potentiality and evaluation, evaluation and volition, volition and question, question and potentiality, potentiality and volition. We analyse the different types of interaction between modal meanings inside the Spanish modality and study the consequences of those interactions. Keywords: modality, mood, Spanish, subjunctive

O presente trabalho objetiva discorrer acerca do potencial semântico-expressivo do predicativo, bem como de seu perfil modalizador. Enxergamos essa função sintática como um elemento modalizante em essência, já que, em muitos casos, o falante consegue demonstrar sua opinião por meio de seu uso, agregado a escolhas lexicais convenientes. Em muitas partes da dissertação, a semântica e a estilística conseguem explicar melhor o fenômeno modal do predicativo. A sintaxe não dá conta disso sozinha. Falamos ainda da topicalização do predicativo como um recurso modalizador, bem como da noção de balizamento.Usamos também como exemplos um corpus exemplificativo heterogêneo para mostrar que o predicativo, topicalizado ou não, funciona como recurso modalizador, semântico e expressivo / This paper aims to discuss about the expressive semantic-predicative potential, and his modalizator profile. We see this syntactic function as a modalizating element "in essence, because, in many cases, the speaker can show his/her opinion using it, connected with lexical convenient choices. In many parts of the dissertation, semantics and stylistics can better explain the phenomenon of predicative modal form. Syntax does not make it herself. We still talk about predicative topicalization as a modalizator resource and also talk about the concept of "marking". We also use heterogeneous corpus examples to show that predicative, topicalizated or not, works as a modalizator, semantic and expressive resource