The objectives of this research were to 1) monitor in-situ moisture and diffusivity for both conventional concrete and concrete containing pre-wetted lightweight fine aggregate (LWFA), 2) compare deck performance in terms of early-age cracking, compressive strength, and chloride ingress, and 3) compare concrete properties in terms of compressive strength, chloride permeability, elastic modulus, and water content in the laboratory using cylinders cast in the field at the time of deck construction. The research involved field and laboratory evaluations of four newly constructed bridge decks located in northern Utah, two constructed using conventional concrete and two constructed using pre-wetted LWFA to promote internal curing. Data from sensors embedded in the concrete decks indicate that the moisture content of the internally cured concrete was consistently 1.5 to 4 percentage points higher than the moisture content of the conventional concrete for the first 6 months following deck construction. By 1 year, however, the internally cured concrete showed little difference in moisture content compared to the conventional concrete. While the internally cured concrete decks had a higher average moisture content, the electrical conductivity values were not consistently higher than those measured on the conventional concrete decks during the first approximately 8 to 10 months. However, after 8 to 10 months, both internally cured concrete decks exhibited higher electrical conductivity values than those measured on the conventional concrete decks. Laboratory compressive strength data indicate that, for the first 6 months following deck construction, the two concrete mixtures exhibited very similar strength gain characteristics. However, at 1 year, the conventional concrete was stronger by an average of 12.9 percent, or nearly 900 psi, than the internally cured concrete. In rapid chloride permeability testing, the internally cured concrete consistently passed between 13.1 and 17.5 percent less current than that passed by the conventional concrete. Laboratory free-free resonant testing at 1 year showed that the modulus of the internally cured concrete was 3.9 percent lower, on average, than that of the conventional concrete. For the tested specimens, the moisture content of the internally cured concrete was 0.5 percentage points higher, on average, than that of the conventional concrete. In the field, Schmidt rebound hammer testing showed that the internally cured concrete was neither consistently stronger nor weaker than the conventional concrete. On average, the internally cured concrete exhibited higher chloride concentrations than the conventional concrete. On average, the conventional concrete bridge decks had 4.6, 21.5, and 2.8 times more cracking than the internally cured concrete decks at 5 months, 8 months, and 1 year, respectively. At 1 year, very distinctive reflection cracks from the joints between the underlying pre-cast half-deck panels were observed on all of the decks.

Severe flooding events in recent years have underlined the importance of accurate hydrological modelling in urban areas. There are many important parameters relating to both the rainfall distribution and properties of the land on which the rain falls that controls the impacts of the rain event. While the importance of input parameters such as initial water content, topography and extent of hardened surfaces is widely known, their impact on hydrological response in urban areas is not thoroughly understood. In 2017, scientists from the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, SMHI, presented five empirical hyetographs based on long-term Swedish municipal rain data (Olsson, et al., 2017). The hyetographs vary in location of peak and distribution of intensity. Olsson (2019) evaluated the hydrological response in terms of water depth of the hyetographs in relation to Chicago Design Storm (CDS), a common design storm used in Swedish hydrological modelling, and found that CDS nearly always overestimates the hydrological response in comparison to the empirical hyetographs, meaning historical rainfall intensity distributions, developed by SMHI.  The aim of this thesis is to analyse the robustness of empirical hyetographs by conducting a sensitivity analysis of a generic urban model with a variation of input parameters. A statistical analysis of data on hardened surfaces, topography and initial water content was conducted to find the median, 5th and 95th percentile respectively of the range of values in Swedish conditions. These values were applied to a synthetic urban model and run together with the five empirical hyetographs and CDS in MIKE 21. The results indicate that the empirical hyetographs are not very robust relating to variations in infiltration capacity (initial water content and amount of hardened areas), while they are more robust when varying the topography. The variation of topography also resulted in large variations in water depth, time to peak and extent of flooded area, while variation of initial water content and amount of hardened surfaces had smaller, although still clear, effects. Furthermore, the results show that hyetographs with a late peak are more sensitive to variations in initial water content and hardened surfaces than hyetographs with an early peak. On average, CDS estimates the response in comparison to the empirical hyetographs accurately, with an average overestimation of 0.5%, but does not capture the range and complexity of the empirical hyetographs. Including the frequency of the different hyetographs, CDS gave an overestimation of 5% compared to the empirical hyetographs. The highlight the uncertainty in using CDS as input for urban cloudburst modelling, but limitations in form of catchment properties in a study area and the importance of the input values limits the generability of the study. / De senaste årens allvarliga översvämningshändelser har understrukit vikten av noggrann hydrologisk modellering i stadsområden. Även om betydelsen av parametrar som initial vattenmättnad, topografi och andelen hårdgjorda ytor är allmänt känd, är deras inverkan på urban hydrodynamisk modellering inte helt klarlagd. Under 2017 presenterade forskare från Sveriges Meteorologiska och Hydrologiska Institut, SMHI, fem empiriska hyetografer baserade på långvariga kommunala regndata (Olsson et al., 2017). Hyetograferna varierar i fördelning av intensitet och tidsmässig placering av maxintensitet. Olsson (2019) utvärderade hyetografernas hydrologiska respons i relation till Chicago Design Storm (CDS), en vanlig designstorm som används i svensk hydrologisk modellering, och fann att CDS nästan alltid överskattar responsen i jämförelse med de empiriska hyetograferna.  Syftet med detta examensarbete är att analysera robustheten hos de empiriska hyetograferna genom att utföra en känslighetsanalys av en generisk stadsmodell med en variation av ingångsparametrar. En statistisk analys av data om hårdgjorda ytor, topografi och initial vattenmättnad genomfördes för att hitta median, 5:e respektive 95:e percentilen av värdena i svenska förhållanden. Dessa värden applicerades på en generisk stadsmodell och kördes tillsammans med de fem empiriska hyetograferna och CDS i MIKE 21. Resultaten indikerar att de empiriska hyetograferna inte är helt robusta vad gäller variationer i infiltrationskapacitet (initial vattenmättnad och andel hårdgjorda ytor), medan de är mer robusta vid variation av topografin. Variationen av topografi resulterade också i stora variationer i vattendjup, tid till maxflöde och utbredning av översvämmat område, medan variation av initial vattenmättnad och mängden hårdgjorda ytor hade mindre, men fortfarande tydliga, effekter. Vidare visar resultaten att hyetografer med sen topp är känsligare för variationer i initial vattenhalt och hårdgjorda ytor än hyetografer med tidig topp. I genomsnitt uppskattar CDS responsen från de empiriska hyetograferna korrekt, med en genomsnittlig överskattning på 0.5%, men fångar inte omfånget och komplexiteten hos de empiriska hyetograferna. Inräknat frekvensen av de olika hyetograferna gav CDS en överskattning på 5 % jämfört med de empiriska hyetograferna. Resultaten belyser osäkerheterna i att använda CDS regn som drivdata i skyfallsmodelleringar för stadsplanering, men begränsningar i form av markegenskaper i ett enskilt studieområde och vikten av modellens initialvärden begränsar dock generaliteten för studien.

Vid byggande av hus med källargrund vill de flesta kunna använda den ytan som en del av bostaden samt för aktiviteter såsom olika hobbyverksamheter. När källaren nyttjas som bostad krävs fuktskydd och värmeisolering i golv och väggar. Man vill ha en torr källare så möjlighet att välja ytskikt finns.När man väljer material i källaryttergrundmuren väljer man med hänsyn till överbyggnadens konstruktion. Exempel på material är murad vägg av betonghålblock, murad vägg av lättbetongblock, murad vägg av lättklinkerblock, platsgjuten betong, stående källarväggselement av lättbetong, stående källarväggselement av lättklinker och betongelement. Är det ett flerbostadshus med källaryttergrundmur byggs det nästan enbart av platsgjuten betong medan det vid småhus i regel utförs av lättbetong, lättklinker samt element av lättbetong och lättklinkerbetong.Utöver material för den bärande konstruktionen måste även material för tilläggsisolering och fuktisolering väljas. Utan isoleringen uppfyller inte byggnaden de energikrav som finns. Likaså måste de flesta ytterväggrundmurar förses med någon typ av fuktisolering. Vad är då det bästa sättet att bygga en fuktsäker källare med eventuellt tillkommande krav? / When building houses with a basement, most people want to use that area as part of the accommodation as well as activities such as various hobby activities. When the basement is used like the rest of the house, as a warm living area, moisture protection and thermal insulation are required in both floors and walls. One wants a dry basement so the possibility of choosing surface layers is available.When selecting materials within the basement wall, it is with regards of the construction above. Examples of materials are brick walls of concrete boulders, brick walls of aerated concrete, brick walls of haydite blocks, cast concrete, standing concrete wall elements of aerated concrete, standing brick wall elements of haydite and concrete elements. If it is a multi-storey house with basement terraced ground, it is almost exclusively made of cast concrete, but for individual buildings it is usually made of aerated concrete, haydite and elements of aerated concrete and haydite concrete.In addition to material for the supporting structure, additional insulation and moisture insulation materials must also be selected. Without isolation, the building does not meet the energy requirements. Likewise, most exterior walls must be provided with some type of moisture insulation. What is then the best way to build a moisture proof basement with any additional requirements?

In this project an experimental setup is designed to investigate the effect of intermittent load patterns in combination with moisture content on cellulose ageing. It is done by exposing groups of samples to different intermittent load patterns with varying frequency. A literature review is done on transformer insulation system and cellulose degradation. Various technical solutions to different aspects of the experimental design are reviewed. The final experimental setup is explained with the primary focus being on the hardware and programming of the controlling system. The controlling system consists of a Data Acquisition (DAQ) system from National Instruments and is programmed in LabVIEW. The controlling system is examined in two investigative tests where it performed satisfactorily. Three load patterns are developed. This project suggests how to prepare the samples and what direct- and indirect tests to apply to the insulation system for future analysis.Over the years, a considerable amount of scientific work has been devoted to understanding paper ageing in order to improve transformer diagnostics and investments for utility owners. However, transformer loading guidelines of today do not take intermittent load in combination with moisture content into account [1] [2]. Previous work suggests that the thermal models may be improved by looking into the effects of moisture content [3].The primary aim of the proposed experimental setup is to investigate whether an intermittent load pattern in combination with moisture content have a considerable detrimental effect on cellulose ageing. The intent is to contribute with new knowledge about transformer diagnostics and long-term possibly improve the current thermal models used for Dynamic Transformer Rating (DTR) which do not take this phenomenon into account. This would in particular benefit transformers with typically intermittent load patterns, e.g. a transformer connected to a wind farm or photovoltaic panels. Increasing renewable energy installations increase the need for developing the thermal models in the transformer loading guidelines to take unconventional load profiles into account. / I det här projektet utformas ett experiment för att undersöka inverkan av intermittenta lastmönster i kombination med fukthalt på åldrande av cellulosa. Detta görs genom att utsätta provgrupper för olika lastmönster med varierande frekvens. En litteraturgenomgång görs på transformatorisoleringssystem och nedbrytning av cellulosa. Olika tekniska lösningar för olika aspekter av experimentets design ses över. Den slutliga utformningen av experimentet förklaras med fokus på hårdvara och programmering av kontrollsystemet. Kontrollsystemet består av ett system för datainsamling från National Instruments och programmeras i LabVIEW. Kontrollsystemet utvärderas i två undersökande test där det förfor på ett tillfredsställande sätt. Tre lastmönster till experimentet har tagits fram. Det här projektet föreslår hur man förbereder proverna och vilka direkta och indirekta test som kan göras för framtida analyser.Under åren har en betydande mängd vetenskapligt arbete ägnats åt att förstå pappersåldring för att förbättra transformatordiagnostik och investeringsunderlaget för nätägare. De industriella standarderna tar dock inte hänsyn till intermittent belastning i kombination med fukthalt [1] [2]. Tidigare arbete föreslår att de termiska modellerna möjligen kan förbättras genom att undersöka effekterna av fukthalt [3].Det huvudsakliga målet med den föreslagna experimentella uppställningen är att undersöka huruvida ett intermittent belastningsmönster i kombination med fukthalt har en betydande inverkan på pappersåldrandet. Föresatsen är att bidra med ny kunskap om transformatordiagnostik och för att om möjligt långsiktigt förbättra de nuvarande termiska modellerna som används till dynamiska lastbarhetsmodeller för transformatorer. Detta skulle särskilt gynna transformatorer med typiskt intermittenta belastningsmönster, t ex en transformator ansluten till en vindkraftpark eller solcellspaneler. Ökande antal av anläggningar för förnybar energi ökar behovet av att utveckla de termiska modellerna för att ta hänsyn till okonventionella lastprofiler.

<p dir="ltr">In Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry (GNSS-R) a critical theme is in un-<br>derstanding and delving into determining specular points, and how to optimize its solutions.<br>The implications are significant for soil moisture, Snow Water Equivalent (SWE), water stor-<br>age, and climate dynamics. For instance, the Signals of Opportunity in P-Band Investigation<br>(SNOOPI) will utilize observations in reference to the specular point to evaluate measurements<br>that could be used to determine water content, soil moisture, and SWE. The focus of this<br>study is presenting and evaluating two prominent methods for determining specular points:<br>the Minimum Path Delay (MPL) and the Unit Difference (UD). Specular point determin-<br>nation presents various challenges which include: surface roughness, temporal and spatial<br>variability, and multipath effects. All of these earth’s surface characteristics pose a challenge<br>for scientists and engineers who wish to collect terrestrial parameters. The analysis in this<br>study offers a comparative approach focusing on data from the simulator for the CubeSat<br>SNOOPI mission is to evaluate specular point determination accuracy as well as offer a real-<br>world application to determine the efficacy of the two methods. Through this evaluation,<br>the researcher aims to improve specular point determination techniques used in the GNSS-R<br>community and offer insights into future techniques and how they can support each other<br>for more precise results.<br></p>

The embedment behavior of dowels in timber structures, as an essential parameter in the design of connections, is the subject of this thesis. There are numerous advantages using timber structures, including sustainability, energy efficiency, and aesthetic appeal. The mechanical performance of connections in timber structures can be affected by environmental variables, such as moisture content. Thus, in the thesis the embedment behavior of dowels in timber, including the embedment strength and elastic and plastic stiffness at various moisture levels was investigated. In addition to different moisture contents, the effects coming along with changing the moisture content, like swelling and shrinkage, in combination with the assembly history were studied. The study investigated the effects of moisture content variations on the embedment behavior of dowels in timber loaded perpendicular to the grain at relative humidity levels of 38%, 65%, and 85% at a temperature of 20◦C. The study also explored the impact of assembly history of the steel dowels on the embedment behavior. The expression ”assembly history” refers the effects of drilling and assembling steel dowels at different times, i.e. if drilling the timber occurs before changing the moisture content or after changing the moisture content.  Full-hole embedment tests were conducted in five different series to cover all three levels of moisture content while taking the assembly history into account. In total, 100 embedment experiments were carried out, with 50 samples of spruce and 50 samples of birch being assessed perpendicular to the grain. In addition, 20 solid timber specimens were exposed to cyclic loading to evaluate the embedment behavior under these conditions. To evaluate the stress on the timber around the dowel, finite-element simulations, using linear-elastic material behavior in combination with volumetric changes due to moisture variation were conducted. Corresponding to the assembly history in the experiments, the situations of moisture variation in presence and absence of the steel dowel for the swelling and shrinkage case were investigated. The experimental results showed that while the elastic and plastic embedment stiffness can be impacted by moisture content only in low MC situations, it can potentially affect embedment strength in both dry and wet conditions. Additionally, the assembly history influences only the plastic stiffness in a low MC condition. Results from cyclic loading have shown no significant difference to embedment strength and stiffness gained from monotonic loading. According to numerical simulations, the tensile normal stress in the direction perpendicular to the load direction is higher than the tension strength for the shrinkage case with the dowel present. This might be explained by using a simple linear elastic material model in the FEM simulation, which causes an overestimation in the stiffness properties. In conclusion, this thesis offers new perspectives and a deeper knowledge of how moisture content, assembly history, and cyclic loading perpendicular to the grain affect the embedment behavior of dowels in timber connections.

Commencing with a foundational understanding of the vital role energy modeling plays in optimizing building performance, this study meticulously compares a lowenergy lightweight concrete wall with a wooden stud wall featuring an air gap. The objective is to determine the most advantageous wall type for the construction phase, considering factors such as energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Additionally, comprehensive calculations will be performed to assess the heat resistance of each wall type and ascertain the most cost-effective option in terms of heating expenses for residential purposes.Acquiring pertinent information to successfully complete this study, our analysis considers variations in calculations based on whether the lightweight concrete wall is homogeneous or if the wooden stud wall consists of diverse materials.The findings of this study underscore that low-energy lightweight concrete walls offer notable advantages in terms of production aspects, primarily due to cost savings during the construction process. Moreover, in direct comparison to conventional lightweight concrete blocks, the study demonstrates that low-energy blocks outperform wooden stud walls in terms of energy efficiency and consumption.

Construction on problematic soils is challenging owing to the potential of volume changes due to variation of moisture content. Lime stabilisation can be used to treat problematic soils. The main drawbacks of lime addition to the clayey soils are the need for lengthy curing periods and relatively large quantities of lime for significant improvement and also loss in ductility. Using eco-friendly agricultural and industrial wastes, that can partially be substituted by the material responsible for greenhouse gases such as lime, can overcome these drawbacks and decrease global warming. In the current study, variables controlling the unconfined compressive strength of lime treated clay with a focus on assessing the effects of moisture content were investigated. Furthermore, the effects of adding agricultural waste (Dried Athel Leaves (DAL)) and industrial waste (Silica Fume (SF)) on hydromechanical properties of lime treated clay were assessed. The performance of the treated mixtures was examined based on results attained from unconfined compressive strength, swelling pressure and permeability. Specimens were treated with deferent percentages of lime and cured at different periods and temperatures to observe the strength behaviour. In oedometer tests, the specimens were prepared and tested immediately after compaction. The failure patterns were also studied to better understand the ultimate behaviour of lime stabilised clays. The appearance and presence of cementitious products were identified by using the scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer techniques to elucidate their strength development. The findings indicated that the effect of moisture content is controlled by the clay content and unit weight. The addition of 7% lime to clay caused a remarkable increase in the unconfined compressive strength by 363%. The incorporation of 2% DAL and 5% SF within lime treated clay further increased the strength by 6% and 33% respectively after curing of 28 days at 20 °c in comparison with those attained by lime treatment only. The improvement of the strength of the lime­ treated clay augmented with both wastes continued in long term. Temperature and lime content have positive effects on the improvement of strength, however, increasing lime content to 11% negatively affected the strength of lime treated specimens with 2% DAL. The formation of cementitious products was observed in SEM images and detected quantitatively through EDS analysis. The results of the recorded oedometric tests for lime-DAL and lime-SF mixtures revealed that incorporation of the 2% DAL and 5% SF reduced the clay swelling pressures by 25% and 10% compared to that attained by lime treatment only resulting in total reductions of 93.6% and 68% from that recorded on untreated clay. In addition, the impermeable clay transformed into permeable material by adding DAL and SF. Of the two types of wastes considered in this research, DAL demonstrated more superior improving capability. A further study was conducted to develop ANN model based on collated laboratory data for the prediction of the UCS values of lime treated soils. The promising outcomes of this research suggest that the drawbacks of lime stabilisation can be overcome by the addition of agricultural and industrial wastes. Consequently, the findings attained could be considered in future practice standards with regards to the requirement of lime stabilisation. / Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research in Libya

Root-zone soil moisture (RZSM) is an important variable when forecasting plant growth, determining water availability during drought, and understanding evapotranspiration as a flux. However, current methods indirectly estimate RZSM using data assimilation, which requires time-series data to make model-based predictions. This is because direct measurement requires a lower frequency signal, typically P-band and below (<500MHz), to reach root zone depths and, in turn, necessitates a larger antenna to be deployed in space, which is often unfeasible. A new remote sensing technique known as Signals of Opportunity (SoOp) reutilizes transmitted communication signals to perform microwave remote sensing. This means that SoOp platforms need not include a transmitter, but rather rely on passive radar technology to make measurements. This thesis details the development of a UAS-based P-band SoOp receiver instrument. This platform will be used to progress the state-of-art in techniques for direct measurement of RZSM.

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