Purpose: This research will study how hyperspectral sensoring can assess the moisture content of lettuce by monitoring its growth in indoor vertical farming. Research questions: “What accuracy can be achieved when using hyperspectral sensoring for assessing the moisture content of lettuce leaves grown in vertical farming?” “How can vertical farming contribute to sustainability in conjunction with integration of NIR spectroscopy?” Methodology: This study is an experimental study with a deductive approach in which experiments have been performed using the hyperspectral technologies singlespot sensor and the hyperspectral camera Specim FX17 to collect spectral data. To analyze the data from the experiments two regression models were used and trained to make it possible to predict future moisture content values in lettuce. In order to get a better understanding and analyze the results from the experiments, a literature review was also conducted on how hyperspectral imaging has been applied to assess the quality of food products. Conclusion: The achieved accuracies were 58.24 % and 65.54 % for the PLS regression model and the Neural Network model respectively. Employing hyperspectral sensoring as a non-destructive technique to assess the quality of food products grown and harvested in vertical farming systems, contributes to sustainability from several aspects such as reducing food waste, minimizing costs and detecting different quality attributes that affect the food products. / Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur hyperspektral avbildning kan användas för att bedöma fuktigheten i sallad genom att kontrollera hur den växer i vertikal odling inomhus. Frågeställningar: “Vilken noggrannhet kan uppnås vid användning av hyperspektral avbildning för att bedöma fukthalt hos salladsblad som odlas i vertikal odling?” “Hur kan vertikal odling bidra till hållbarhet i kombination med integration av NIR spectroscopy?”  Metod: Denna studie är en experimentell studie med en kvantitativ metod inom vilken en deduktiv ansats har tillämpats genom användning av de hyperspektrala teknologierna single-spot sensor och hyperspektralkameran Specim FX17 för insamling av spektral data. För att analysera datan från experimenten skapades och tränades två olika regressionsmodeller till att möjliggöra förutsägning av framtida värden av fukthalt i sallad. För att få en bättre förståelse för och kunna göra en bättre analys av resultaten från experimenten, utfördes även en litteraturöversikt på vad tidigare forskning om tillämpningen av hyperspektral avbildning för kvalitetssäkring av matprodukter har visat. Slutsats: Noggrannheten för PLS-regressionsmodellen var 58,24 % och 65,54 % för Neural Network-modellen. Minskat matsvinn och kostnader samt upptäcka olika kvalitetsattribut som påverkar livsmedelsprodukterna är de hållbara resultaten vid bedömning av kvalitet via hyperspektral sensing.

Urban pluvial floods occur during extreme rain events and both occurrence and magnitude of these floods are expected to increase. Preserving or constructing green areas in urban areas has been shown to mitigate and control these floods. The common way to evaluate flood risks is to set up a rainfall-runoff model, but these studies are often case related and only investigate the soil characteristics for that specific case. Multiple studies have also stated that the difference between major and minor flooding effects is connected to the antecedent soil moisture content. This thesis attempts to investigate how different soil characteristics influencing infiltration affect the hydraulic response in two Swedish urban catchments and if antecedent soil moisture is a critical factor. To evaluate the hydraulic response, a two-dimensional surface runoff model of two different urban catchments was forced with a hyetograph of a CDS-rain with a return period of 100 years. The simulations were conducted with three different soil types for all urban green areas: clay, sandy loam and sand, and three different antecedent soil moisture contents for clay and sandy loam. Flood extent and discharge from catchment area was evaluated, as was flood depth and overland flow in 16 chosen evaluation points. The results showed that with decreasing infiltration rate of a soil and with increasing antecedent soil moisture content, the severity of the flood and discharge at the catchment outlet was increased. It was also concluded that soil type affects flood extent, flood depth, overland flow and discharge from catchment to a greater extent than antecedent soil moisture.

No description available.

Wood plastic composite (WPC) materials have seen a continuous market growth worldwide in the last decade. So-called extruded WPC profiles are today mainly used in outdoor applications, e.g. decking, railing and fencing. In outdoor conditions, moisture sorption in the wood component combined with temperature induced movements of the polymer matrix causes deformations of such composites. On the macroscopic scale this may lead to unacceptable warp, cup and bow of the WPC products, but on a microscopic scale, the movements will cause interfacial cracks between the particles and the matrix, resulting in little or no ability to transfer and re-distribute loads throughout the material. Moisture within the composite will also allow fungi and micro organisms to attack the wood particles. The conceptual idea of this work is to use a chemically modified wood component in WPCs to enhance their long term performance. These chemically modified wood particles exhibit reduced susceptibility to moisture, resulting in better dimensional stability and a higher resistance to biological degradation as compared to that of unmodified wood. The objective of this thesis is to study the effects of using modified wood in WPCs on their moisture sorption behaviour, micromorphology and microbiological durability. The modification methods used were acetylation, heat treatment and furfurylation. Equilibrium moisture content (EMC) and sorption behaviour of WPCs were determined by water vapour sorption experiments. The use of thin sections of the composites enabled EMC to be reached within a comparably short time span. The micromorphology was studied by LV-SEM (low vacuum-scanning electron microscope) using a specially designed sample preparation technique based on UV laser. The biological durability was evaluated by laboratory fungal test methods. The moisture sorption experiments showed lower moisture levels for all the composites when modified wood particles were used. This was also reflected in the micromorphological studies where pronounced wood-plastic interfacial cracks were formed due to moisture movement in the composites with unmodified wood particles. The sample preparation technique by UV laser proved to be a powerful tool for preparing surfaces for micromorphological studies without adding mechanical defects caused by the sample preparation technique itself. Results from the durability test showed that WPCs with modified wood particles are highly resistant to decay by fungi. / QC 20101116

När en konstruktion blir fuktskadad påverkas de ingående materialen på olika sätt och i vissa fall uppstår så kallad mikrobiell tillväxt som kan påverka människans hälsa. Det finns studier om hur människor reagerar på sådan mikrobiell tillväxt, hur materialen påverkas av olika fuktbelastningar och hur mycket pengar det kostar att byta ut denna konstruktion. Vad som inte finns är hur miljön påverkas att i förtid behöva byta ut en fuktskadad konstruktion. Utifrån ovan nämnda har detta examensarbete vid högskoleingenjörsprogrammet i Byggteknik och design vid Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan utförts.  Det har utförts tillsammans med AK-konsult Indoor Air AB och har i uppdrag att belysa vikten i att fuktsäkerhetsprojektera rätt utifrån ett miljöperspektiv, och att få faktiska siffror på hur mycket koldioxid det genererar att i förtid behöva byta ut en konstruktion. Rapporten är avgränsad till en putsad enstegstätad regelvägg som är uppbyggd enligt följande: utvändig puts, putsbärare av EPS, vindskyddsskiva, träreglar med mellanliggande värmeisolering, luft- och ångspärr och invändig skiva. Miljöpåverkan har beräknats i hur mycket koldioxid 1 m2 av denna konstruktion genererar. Koldioxidutsläppen för de ingående materialen har i största möjliga mån beaktats och beräknats utifrån råvaruutvinning, transport av råmaterial, tillverkning av produkter och transport fram till byggarbetsplatsen. För att kunna beräkna transporter av material och arbetskraft för uppförandet av konstruktionen har en fiktiv byggarbetsplats bestämts (Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm). Även för att ge en bättre bild om hur stora koldioxidutsläppen är vid transport av material och hur ett verkligt fall kan se ut har en fiktiv väggyta på 198 m2 valts att studeras. De emissionsvärden som använts i denna rapport baseras i första hand på de olika materialtillverkarnas byggvarudeklarationer samt samtal med miljöansvariga på de berörda företagen. För att lättare kunna jämföra resultaten av de ingående materialen i detta examensarbete presenteras de i form av utsläpp av totalt kilo koldioxid per mängd material [kgCO2/mängd material]. Det presenteras även fyra olika uppbyggnader av den putsade enstegstätade regelväggen. Det för att visa hur miljön påverkas om tjockputs eller tunnputs används tillsammans med glasfiberarmerad vindskyddsskiva eller en pappbeklädd vindskyddsskiva med en kärna av gips. Dessa olika typer av väggkonstruktionerna betecknas vägg 1, 2, 3 och 4 i rapporten.  De resultat som tagits fram visar att det genereras ungefär lika mycket koldioxid att byta ut 198 m2 av den angivna väggkonstruktionen som att köra en bensindriven personbil nästan ett halvt varv runt jorden (jordens omkrets är ca 4000 mil). Resultaten visar att det är små skillnader i koldioxidutsläpp vad det gäller de olika väggkonstruktionerna. Vägg 2 genererar den största mängden koldioxid, totalt 3223 kgCO2 (1 m2 genererar 16 kgCO2), följt av vägg 1 som genererar 3206 kgCO2 (1 m2 genererar 16 kgCO2). Resultaten visar att produktion av material står för den största individuella delen av utsläpp, 2181 kg koldioxid (ca 2/3 av de totala koldioxidutsläppen) för vägg 2. Där bidrar glasullen med den ingående största delen 891 kgCO2 (41 % av det totala koldioxidutsläppet från materialtillverkning), följt av armeringsnätet på 364 kgCO2 (17 % av det totala koldioxidutsläppet från materialtillverkning). Materialtransporter står för ungefär 505 kg koldioxid (ca 1/6 av de totala koldioxidutsläppen) och styrs främst av typ av lastbil, avverkad sträcka samt lastutnyttjande. Persontransporter till och från arbetsplatsen står för ungefär 537 kg koldioxid (ca 1/6 av de totala koldioxidutsläppen) där mängden koldioxid främst styrs av antalet arbetade dagar samt typ av transportfordon. Den genererade mängden koldioxid för ett totalt utbyte av en väggkonstruktion på 198 m2 skulle, omräknat i svensk elmix, förbruka en energimängd som skulle räcka till byggnadens specifika energianvändning i 17,9 år. Ca 36 % av byggnadens förväntade livslängd på 50 år. Resultaten i denna rapport visar att det ur ett miljöperspektiv är viktigt att lägga stor vikt vid fuktsäkerhetsprojektering. Detta för att påverkan på miljön kan begränsas avsevärt om konstruktioner inte behöver bytas ut i förtid pga. omfattande fuktskador. Med tanke på hur många kvadratmeter dylik fasad som byggts finns högst sannolikt en tämligen stor miljöskuld inbyggd i denna fasadtyp. / When a structure is damaged by moisture, the materials are affected in different ways and sometimes this moisture will lead to mould growth that can affect the human health. Today we can read studies about how human health reacts to this mould growth, how materials reacts and how much money it costs to rebuild the moisture damaged structure. What we don´t know is how much impact it will have on the environment to replace a moisture damaged structure with a new one. From these initial sentences is this degree project in building technology, first level at the Constructional engineering and design program at Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan. This thesis is commissioned by AK-konsult Indoor Air AB and is supposed to highlight the importance of protecting structures against moisture damage from an environmental point of view.  Furthermore it will also result in real figures over how much carbon dioxide a premature replacement will generate. This thesis will strictly look at an insulated, rendered, unventilated and undrained stud wall. It is build-up as: exterior plaster, plaster base (EPS), wind protect-board, wooden framework with insulation, polyeten sheet and interior board. The environmental impact will be measured in how much carbon dioxide 1 m2 of this wall construction will generate. Carbon dioxide emissions from wall materials have been calculated on the basis of resource extraction, transportation of raw materials, manufacturing of products and transportation to construction site. To make the transportation calculations possible a fictitious construction site has been determined (Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm). Also to provide a better picture of how big the emissions are from transportations and how a real case scenario can look like have a 198 m2 wall been calculated. The carbon dioxide emissions in this report are in first hand based on material manufacturer’s environmental declarations and dialogues with environmental specialists at manufacturers. To make the comparison of the result easier between the construction materials they all will be presented in terms of kilo carbon dioxide [kgCO2/amount material]. The result will also present four different types of the above named wall construction. That is to show how the environment affects if thick or thin plaster is used together with fiberglass reinforced wind protect-board or papercoated wind protect-board with gypsum core. These different types of wall construction will in the report be named as wall 1, 2, 3 and 4. The result from this report show that it is generating approximately the same amount of carbon dioxide to change the moisture damage wall as to drive a gasoline-powered car halfway around the earth (diameter approximately 4 0000 kilometers). The results show that it is small differences in carbon dioxide between the four types of wall constructions. Wall 2 generates the largest amount of carbon dioxide emissions, total 3223 kilo (1 m2 generates 16 kgCO2), followed by wall 1 that generates 3206 kilo carbon dioxide (1 m2 generates 16 kgCO2). The result also shows that the largest amount of emissions is created by the production of the new materials, 2181 kilo carbon dioxide (approximately 2/3 of the total carbon dioxide emissions). Where the largest amount of emissions comes from glass wool with 891 kilo carbon dioxide (41 % of the total carbon dioxide from the material production), followed by reinforcement mesh with 364 kilo carbon dioxide (17 % of the total carbon dioxide emissions from material production). Transportation of materials stands for 505 kilo carbon dioxide, slightly less than 1/6 of the total, with key parameters distance, type of vehicle and load utilization. Transportation of labor stands for approximately 537 kilo carbon dioxide slightly more than 1/6 of the total carbon dioxide emissions where the key parameters are number of worked days and type of transportation. The generated carbon dioxide emissions to build a new 198 square meter wall construction corresponds to the specific energy use for a normal house (198m2) for over 17,9 years. Approximately 36 % of the buildings expected life-span of 50 years. The result shows that it is important from an environmental point of view to protect constructions from moisture damage. That is because the fact of not needing to premature replace the moisture damaged construction can considerably reduce the environmental impact. Considering how many such facades that are built is it most likely a rather large environmental liability built in this facade type.

The potential for high spatio-temporal resolution microwave measurements has urged the adoption of the signals of opportunity (SoOp) passive radar technique for use in remote sensing. Recent trends in particular target highly complex remote sensing problems such as root-zone soil moisture and snow water equivalent. This dissertation explores the continued open-sourcing of the SoOp coherent bistatic scattering model (SCoBi) and its use in soil moisture sensing applications. Starting from ground-based applications, the feasibility of root-zone soil moisture remote sensing is assessed using available SoOp resources below L-band. A modularized, spaceborne model is then developed to simulate land-surface scattering and delay-Doppler maps over the available spectrum of SoOp resources. The simulation tools are intended to provide insights for future spaceborne modeling pursuits.

No description available.

Polyamides are commonly used in additive manufacturing for final part production, but the material performance can be affected by environmental conditions. The purpose of this project was to evaluate the effects of moisture and temperature on 3D printed polyamides and how structural optimization can benefit from condition-specific data. Conditioned and unconditioned specimens were tensile tested in regions of -20 °C, 23 °C and 60 °C. Two techniques were evaluated; multi jet fusion and selective laser sintering, and mainly two polyamides; polyamide 11 and polyamide 12. Simulations with the obtained data were performed as well as conceptual structural optimization with the intent of optimizing for the intended end-use environment. Infrared thermography provided specimen temperatures as well as temperature and strain relations present during testing. The stress-strain curves obtained showed generally decreasing stiffness and strength with increasing moisture and temperature, albeit moisture in certain cases increased the tensile modulus at freezing temperatures. Temperature affected stiffness and strength more so than moisture. Polyamide 11 absorbed moisture at a higher rate than polyamide 12. The mechanical performance of laser-sintered polyamide 12 was superior, while laser-sintered polyamide 11 showed great elongation before breakage. Further investigation of polymer crystallinity could explain the behaviour of the 3D printed polyamides.

The use of recycled concrete material (RCM) as pavement base material is a promising but unproven technique for road rehabilitation and construction. A telephone survey conducted to investigate the state of the practice concerning RCM usage in Utah County revealed that RCM is infrequently used in this application due primarily to a lack of practical knowledge about the engineering properties of the material. Therefore, this research was aimed at evaluating the physical properties, strength parameters, and durability characteristics of both demolition and haul-back sources of RCM available in Utah County for use as pavement base material. The study included extensive laboratory and field testing. Laboratory tests included California bearing ratio (CBR), unconfined compressive strength (UCS), stiffness, freeze-thaw cycling, moisture susceptibility, abrasion, salinity, and alkalinity evaluations. Non-destructive testing was utilized in the field to monitor seasonal variation in stiffness of an RCM pavement base layer over a 1-year period. The testing included a dynamic cone penetrometer, ground-penetrating radar, a heavy Clegg impact soil tester, a soil stiffness gauge, and a portable falling-weight deflectometer. The laboratory testing indicated that the demolition material exhibited lower strength and stiffness than the haul-back material and reduced UCS loss after freeze-thaw cycling. However, the demolition material received a moisture susceptibility rating of good in the tube suction test, while the haul-back material was rated as marginal. Both materials exhibited self-cementing effects that led to approximately 180 percent increases in UCS over a 7-day curing period. Seven-day UCS values were 1260 kPa and 1820 kPa for the demolition and haul-back materials, respectively, and corresponding CBR values were 22 and 55. The field monitoring demonstrated that the RCM base layer was susceptible to stiffness changes due primarily to changes in moisture. In its saturated state during spring testing, the site experienced CBR and stiffness losses of up to 60 percent compared to summer-time values. RCM compares well with typical pavement base materials in many respects. Given the laboratory and field data developed in this research, engineers should be able to estimate the strength and durability parameters of RCM needed for pavement design.

This thesis includes two studies. The first study examined changes in soil characteristics as a result of prolonged conifer dominance in successional aspen-conifer forests. Changing disturbance patterns in aspen-conifer forests appear to be altering successional dynamics that favors conifer expansion in aspen forests. The primary objective of this paper was to identify how increasing conifer dominance that develops in later successional stages alters forest soil characteristics. Soil measurements were collected along a stand composition gradient: aspen dominated, aspen-conifer mix, conifer dominated and open meadow, which includes the range of conditions that exists through the stages of secondary succession in aspen-conifer forests. Soil chemistry, moisture content, respiration, and temperature were measured. There was a consistent trend in which aspen stands demonstrated higher mean soil nutrient concentrations than adjacent meadows, mixed or conifer stands. Soil moisture was significantly higher in aspen stands and meadows in early summer. Soil respiration was significantly higher in aspen stands than conifer stands or meadows throughout the summer. The results indicate that soil resource availability and respiration peak within aspen dominated stands that are present during early succession and then decrease as conifer abundance increases along our stand composition gradient, representative of stand characteristics present in mid to late successional stages. Emerging evidence from other studies suggest that these observed changes in soil characteristics with increasing conifer dominance may have negative feedbacks on aspen growth and vigor. The second study examined the facilitation effect between aspen and subalpine fir establishment. In subalpine forests, conifer species are often found intermixed with broadleaf species. However, few if any studies have explored the existence and influence of facilitation between broadleaf tree species and conifers. We have observed the general establishment of subalpine fir seedlings at the base of aspen trees in a subalpine forest, indicating that a facilitative relationship may exist. To explore the potential facilitative relationship during secondary succession in subalpine forests, subalpine fir seeds were planted across a stand composition gradient (aspen dominated → mixed → conifer dominated stands) at six study sites in the Fishlake National Forest. Seeds were placed during the fall of 2010, at distances of 0 cm and 25 cm in each cardinal direction at the base of mature aspen and subalpine fir trees in each of the three stand types. Seeds were also planted within stand interspaces and in adjacent meadows. Seedling emergence was recorded at the beginning of the summer of 2011 and seedling mortality was recorded in October 2011. Soil moisture content was measured at the position that seeds were placed during the summers of 2009 and 2011. Aspen dominated stands had subalpine fir germination that was on average 11 times greater than mixed or conifer dominated stands. Germination was 2.3 fold greater at the base of aspen trees than fir trees and two fold greater at the base of aspen trees than interspaces. Seedling mortality was lower in aspen stands but was not significantly influenced by position relative to mature trees. Soil moisture was highest in aspen dominated stands, with better soil moisture conditions at the base of aspen trees and in interspaces compared to the base of fir trees. Few if any studies regarding conifer facilitation have provided evidence for facilitation at the germination life stage, rather they focus on seedling survival. However, our study illustrates a strong facilitative interaction in which both aspen dominated stands and aspen trees increase the likelihood of subalpine fir seedling establishment by drastically increasing rates of subalpine fir germination. Because of aspen's primary role in initiating secondary succession through post-disturbance sucker regeneration, and the subsequent dependence of conifers on aspen for establishment, aspen mortality via competition with conifers under longer fire cycles, droughts, or intensive ungulate browsing may result in a loss of aspen-conifer forest communities in some locales.