Os mastocitomas são formações cutâneas neoplásicas que mais acometem os cães, por isso inúmeras pesquisas estão sendo direcionadas no descobrimento de novas opções de tratamento, diagnóstico e prognóstico desta doença. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a expressão de um conjunto de proteínas que estão interligadas ou interligam vias de sinalização, na tentativa de identificar proteínas que se apresentem diferencialmente expressas nos mastocitomas caninos de diferentes graus. Realizamos um estudo da expressão deste conjunto de proteínas em 18 tumores oriundos dos arquivos do Serviço de patologia animal do Departamento de Patologia da FMVZ-USP. Realizamos coleta de material fresco de outras 18 amostras de mastocitomas cutâneos caninos, as quais foram submetidas ao cultivo celular, e então foram estabelecidas 10 linhagens de mastocitomas cutâneos caninos a fim de se avaliar este mesmo grupo de marcadores moleculares in vitro. As amostras do arquivo foram submetidas à imunomarcação das seguintes proteínas: PTEN, c-kit, E-caderina, β-catenina, α-catenina, p120-catenina, MMP-7. Nas linhagens tumorais estabelecidas analisamos o ciclo celular, ploidia de DNA, proliferação celular pelo CFSE, análise ultraestrutural pela microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, análise mutacional do gene c-Kit, e análise por imunocitoquímica e imunofluorescência dos seguintes marcadores moleculares: PTEN, c-kit, E-caderina, β-catenina, α-catenina, p120-catenina, MMP-7, CX32, CX43, vimentina, triptase. Os resultados demonstram a alteração da expressão das proteínas do complexo E-caderina/catenina, do c-Kit, da proteína PTEN e MMP-7 de acordo com o grau do mastocitoma canino. Observamos além da redução de expressão uma localização subcelular de todas estas proteínas nos tumores mais agressivos como nos mastocitomas de grau 3. O mesmo foi observado para as proteínas Cx 43 e 32. Realizamos levantamento do histórico clínico dos 18 casos de mastocitoma caninos oriundos do arquivo, e os parâmetros clínicos avaliados foram: idade, raça, gênero, localização, tempo de evolução, alteração linfonodo, metástases, tempo sobrevida, intervalo recidiva, óbito. Foram associados a um pior prognóstico os pacientes que apresentaram os seguintes parâmetros: animais idosos, presença de metástase, localização no tórax e graduação tumoral. Nas linhagens tumorais estabelecidas, a análise da ploidia revelou que todas as linhagens de mastocitomas são diploides e o CFSE mostrou que a proliferação máxima ocorre dentro de 24hs de cultivo. A análise ultraestrutural comprova que as células das linhagens são mastócitos tumorais. A análise pela imunocitoquimica dos marcadores em estudo revelaram padrões similares aos encontrados na imunoistoquimica. Pela expressão da vimentina e da triptase confirmamos mais uma vez se tratar de linhagens de mastócitos em cultivo. Na análise mutacional do gene c-kit encontramos mutações no éxon 8 e 11, mas não no éxon 17. Nossos resultados revelam a ocorrência simultânea de inúmeras alterações moleculares nos mastocitoma caninos. As proteínas avaliadas têm funções e vias distintas, mas, que se interligam podendo regular ou serem reguladas, dependendo do momento em que se encontra a célula. A desestabilização do complexo E-caderina-cateninas parece ser o programa efetor na progressão dos mastocitomas caninos. A finalidade maior de se realizar estudos morfológicos, funcionais e moleculares das neoplasias é contribuir, mais cedo ou mais tarde, para o controle destas doenças. Esperamos, com este trabalho, ter fornecido informações importantes que favorecerão a busca por melhores tratamentos dos mastocitomas caninos. / Mast cell tumors are malignant skin formations that most affect dogs, so many research projects are being directed at the discovery of new treatment options, diagnosis and prognosis of this disease. The objective of this study was to evaluate the expression of a set of proteins that are interlinked or interconnected signaling pathways, in an attempt to identify proteins that show differentially expressed in canine mast cell tumors of different grades. We performed a study of the expression of this set of 18 proteins in tumors originating from the files of the Service of Animal Pathology, Department of Pathology of the FMVZ - USP. We collected other 18 new samples of canine cutaneous mast cell tumors , which were subjected to cell culture , and 10 strains of canine cutaneous mast cell tumors were established in order to evaluate in vitro this same group of molecular markers. The samples were subjected to immunostainings the following proteins: PTEN, c-kit, E-cadherin, β-catenin, α-catenin, p120-catenin, MMP-7. In established tumor cell lines we analyzed the cell cycle, DNA ploidy, cell proliferation by CFSE, ultrastructural analysis by transmission electron microscopy , mutational analysis of c-kit gene, and analysis by immunocytochemistry and immunofluorescence of the following molecular markers: PTEN, c-kit, E-cadherin, β-catenin, α-catenin, p120-catenin, MMP-7, CX32, Cx43, vimentin, tryptase. The results demonstrate the altered expression of the proteins, c- Kit, MM7 and PTEN proteins according to the level of the canine mastocytoma E-caderina/catenina complex. It has been observed a reduced expression as well as alterations in subcellular localization of all these proteins in more aggressive tumors as in grade 3 mast cell tumors. The same was observed for Cx 43 and 32 proteins. It has been performed a survey of the medical records of 18 cases of canine mast cell tumors retrieved from the archives, and clinical parameters evaluated were age, race, gender, location, time of evolution, change lymph node metastasis, survival time, recurrence interval, death. Older animals, metastasis, and tumor location in the chest, and mast cell tumor grade: patients who had the following parameters were associated with a worse prognosis. In the established tumor cell lines, ploidy analysis revealed that all lines are diploid mastocytoma and CFSE proliferation showed that the maximum occurs within 24 hours of cultivation. The ultrastructural analysis showed that the tumor cells are mast cell lineages. Analysis by immunocytochemistry markers studied showed similar patterns to those found in immunohistochemistry. By expression of vimentin and tryptase confirmed once again the case of mast cell lines in culture. In mutational analysis of the c kit, mutations were found in exon 8 and 11, but not in exon 17. Our results show the simultaneous occurrence of numerous molecular alterations in canine mast cell tumors. Proteins have different functions and evaluated pathways, but that interlock may regulate or be regulated, depending on the moment of the cell. The destabilization of the complex E-cadherin-catenins seems to be the effector program in the progression of canine mast cell tumors. The main purpose of performing morphological, functional and molecular studies of tumors is to contribute, sooner or later, to the control of these diseases. Hopefully, with this work, we have provided important information which will facilitate the search for better treatment of canine mast cell tumors

Introdução: Doenças pulmonares ou infecções que ocorrem no início da vida podem ter permanente impacto na vida adulta. Pouco se sabe sobre o perfil de células do sistema imunológico em pulmões de crianças lactentes. Objetivo: Descrever o perfil de células do sistema imunológico no pulmão de lactentes sem doença pulmonar. Métodos: Amostras de pulmões histologicamente normais, obtidas através de autópsia de dez crianças que morreram de causas acidentais ou de doenças não pulmonares, foram marcadas por anticorpos contra linfócitos B e T, macrófagos, células NK (natural Killer), células citotóxicas, células dendríticas e mastócitos. As células foram quantificadas no epitélio, na camada interna, na camada externa das vias aéreas e nos septos alveolares. Membrana basal e septos alveolares foram medidos através de análise de imagem. Resultados expressos em células/mm de membrana basal epitelial brônquica ou alveolar. Resultados: A mediana das idades foi 2,5 meses (1-730 dias). Os resultados mostraram que a camada interna apresentou pequena densidade celular. No epitélio da via aérea e no parênquima houve predominância de células que estão relacionadas com a imunidade inata, tais como: CD56+, Granzyme + e CD68+. A camada externa e o parênquima alveolar apresentaram a maior densidade celular. Poucas células T CD4+ e células dendríticas foram encontradas na maioria dos compartimentos do pulmão. Conclusão: Há uma compartimentalização de células relacionadas com o sistema imunológico ao longo da via aérea e parênquima dos pulmões das crianças estudadas. Esta configuração pode estar relacionada com o desenvolvimento dos mecanismos de defesa da imunidade inata e da imunidade adquirida. Este conhecimento é importante para entender os mecanismos da imunocompetência pós-natal dos pulmões / Introduction: Pulmonary diseases or infections occurring early in life may have a permanent impact in adulthood. Little is known about the normal immune cell profile in the lungs of infants. Objective: To describe the immune cell profile of infants without lung disease. Methods: Histologically normal lung samples obtained at autopsy of ten infants that died either due to incidental or inflicted causes or non-pulmonary diseases were stained for antibodies against B and T lymphocytes, macrophages, NK cells, cytotoxic cells, dendritic cells and mast cells. Cells were quantified in the airway epithelial layer, inner layer, outer layer and alveolar septa. Basement membrane or alveolar septa lengths were assessed by image analysis. Results are expressed as cells/mm. Results: The median age of patients was 2.5 months and ranged from 1- 730 days. The inner layer of the airways was the region with the smallest density of cells. There was a predominance of cells related to the innate immunity such as CD56+, Granzyme B+ and CD68+ cells in the epithelial layer and alveolar parenchyma. The outer layer and the lung parenchyma presented the highest cellular density. There were very few CD4+ T cells or dendritic cells in most of the lung compartments. Conclusions: There was a compartmentalization of immune cells along airways and parenchyma in infants, which may be related to the development of innate and acquired lung defense mechanisms. This knowledge is important to understand mechanisms of postnatal immune competence of the lungs

The metabolic pathways required for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production within the cell are well understood, however recent publications suggest that metabolic pathways are closely linked to immune cell activation and inflammatory diseases. There has been little examination of the metabolic pathways that modulate mast cell activation and the feedback regulator lactic acid. Here we examine metabolic pathways and regulation within mast cells in the context of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interleukin (IL-33) activation, for which there has been little to no reported studies. First, we examine the effects of lactic acid, previously considered only a by-product of glycolysis and now understood to act as a negative feedback regulator of inflammation in the context of LPS activation and sepsis. Lactic acid is elevated in septic patients and associated with mortality, potentially due to suppressive effects on LPS signaling and contribution to late phase immunosuppression. By attenuating glycolysis and reducing ATP availability for signaling and cytokine transcription, lactic acid impairs the function of immune cells to fight the initial or subsequent infections. We support this with in vitro and in vivo data. Additionally, our lab has published that lactic acid can suppress IL-33 activation, potentially by metabolic modulation as with LPS activation; however there has been no study of the metabolic requirements for IL-33 activation. We report here that glycolysis is required for ATP and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production to augment signaling and cytokine production downstream of the IL-33 receptor. Together, these studies examine the contribution of metabolism to mast cell activation and may provide potential targets for treatments of diseases that involve LPS- or IL-33-dependent mast cell activation.

Mast cells are tissue-resident immune cells known as effector cells for the innate and adaptive immune systems. Mast cells contribute to host defenses against parasites such as large roundworm parasites, bacterial pathogens, and toxins, and participate in wound healing, but they are mostly known for their role in allergic diseases. It has been well established that during allergic diseases, mast cells are stimulated by IgE cross-linkage to release proinflammatory mediators. However, a newly discovered cytokine, IL-33 has also been implicated in allergic disease. Recently, IL-33 has been implicated as a driver of several Type I sensitivities and previous studies have shown that IL-33 can stimulate mast cells in atopic inflammation. Although the importance of IL-33 has been established, there are still several things unknown about IL-33 signaling regulation or treatment. This dissertation will present two separate studies involving the modulation of IL-33-mediated mast cells function In the first study, the effects of fluvastatin are explored. In a previous study, fluvastatin was shown to inhibit proinflammatory functions of IgE crosslinked mast cells. Contrasting to IgE stimulation, fluvastatin augments IL-6 and TNF production in IL-33 stimulated mast cells, but suppressed MCP-1. This phenomenon was seen in mouse and human mast cells in vitro and replicated in a mast cell-dependent murine model of IL-33-induced inflammation in vivo. In the second study, IL-33 was found to induce miR-146a expression in mouse mast cells and mast cell-derived exosomes in vitro, and in plasma exosomes in vivo. IL-33 induced miR-146a was of interest because miR-146a is a known negative regulator of TLR signaling, which shares the MyD88 signaling pathway with IL-33. We found that miR-146a KO mast cells are hyperresponsive to IL-33 stimulation, data that were replicated by suppressing miR-146a-5p in WT mast cells. In an acute mast cell repopulation model, kitW-sh/W-sh mice containing miR-146a KO BMMC had increased IL-33 induced neutrophilia in comparison to their controls. Collectively, these data reveal new IL-33 signaling pathways and means of altering its inflammatory effects on mast cells. Because IL-33 has important roles in allergy and other Th2-mediated diseases, these results advance clinically relevant areas of immunology.

The development of microarray technology has provided an unprecedented wealth of data on gene expression in various tissue and cell types. Few studies have, however, taken full advantage of these data by selecting and then extensively characterising the functions of particular genes chosen from these microarray datasets. In this study, after analysing differentially-regulated genes revealed by microarray analysis of human mast cells activated via Fc??RI cross-linking, we chose two promising gene candidates for further research, A20 and Gem. Our group??s extensive gene expression database of major leukocytes showed that both A20 and Gem were up-regulated in other leukocyte types, and yet neither of these genes has been extensively explored in mast cells or in the immune system prior to our study. In order to investigate the first of these genes selected for further study, A20, we utilised both A20-deficient mast cells and mast cells in which A20 was over-expressed. Our findings establish for the first time that A20 is an important regulator of mast cell inflammatory responses to both LPS and Fc??RI cross-linking, and that it plays a novel role in mast cell proliferation. Our study of the second gene chosen for investigation, Gem, was conducted in a Gemdeficient mouse model developed by our group. In this study, we investigated the effect of Gem deficiency in two key immune cell types, macrophages and T-cells, complementing the work of a previous group member who investigated Gem deficiency in mast cells. Our results clearly exclude a role for Gem in macrophage and T-cell effector responses, and further establish that Gem is dispensable for in vivo inflammatory responses in models of delayed-type hypersensitivity and allergic airway inflammation. In addition to these findings, and given that the physiological role of Gem was not yet understood prior to our study, we extended our investigation to explore a potential function for Gem in the metabolic system. Using Gem-deficient mice, we found that Gem is necessary for insulin secretion from pancreatic islets. These findings confirm the potential for microarray expression data to reveal excellent gene candidates for further research and functional characterisation.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2007. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 199-227).

<p>The airway epithelium plays a crucial role in protecting the underlying connective tissue (CT) from noxious agents. Damage and shedding of the epithelium are observed in the airways of asthma, cystic fibrosis and rhinitis patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms by which epithelial damage occurs, and the consequences of such damage for the inflammatory process in the airways. In this study, cultured normal human bronchial epithelial cells, excised rat tracheae, and cultured murine mast cells were used as model systems. Metabolic alterations, morphological changes and cell-cell contact stabilities were investigated.</p><p>The T-helper (Th)-1 cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and interleukin (IL)-1β were found to be pro-inflammatory, leading to major morphological changes, inhibitions in desmosome formation, and accelerated cell death. The Th2 cytokines, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 were found to cause no changes in cell death, nitric oxide levels and desmosome formation but instead an increase in proliferation, therefore were anti-inflammatory in this respect.</p><p>Increasing the osmolarity of the airway surface liquid (ASL) altered the integrity of the tight junction (TJ) and allowed a 4-kDa compound to penetrate the epithelial layer and access the CT. This effect was reversible if the ASL was returned to 295 mOsm. Intentionally breaking the TJ with EGTA and subsequent osmolar changes in ASL demonstrated the importance of TJ and the fragility of the CT under hyperosmolar stress, leading to a disrupted CT with larger capillaries and altered elemental ion content and epithelial denudation. </p><p>Hydrocortisone was shown to downregulate IL-4-induced IL-6 upregulation in murine mast cells. Furthermore, incubating mast cells with hydrocortisone lead to a new subpopulation that was morphologically unique, that displayed new cell surface markers (CD44 and CD61) and that lacked CD54. These changes modify the interactions of mast cells with surrounding cells in the CT and epithelium.</p><p>In conclusion, the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and ASL osmolarity may influence the role of the airway epithelium as a barrier. The pharmacological use of hyperosmolarity to disrupt TJ reversibly may help facilitate the delivery of drugs through the airway epithelium.</p>

<p>Mast cells are very potent multifunctional effector cells of the immune system normally distributed throughout connective tissues. An accumulation of mast cells has been described in several pathological conditions such as allergic- and autoimmune inflammations and in certain tumours. This necessitates two different processes: 1) Recruitment of mast cell progenitors from peripheral blood; 2) Accretion of mature mast cells at sites of inflammation and tumour areas. Both processes are depending on the local production of chemotactic factors. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of chemokines and their corresponding receptors in mast cell chemotaxis. </p><p>By cloning and mRNA-screening of cord blood derived mast cells several chemokine receptors were found to be expressed. Functional expression was confirmed of chemokine receptors CXCR4, CCR1 and CCR4. CXCL12, the only known ligand for CXCR4, acted as a mast cell chemotaxin and induced migration of progenitor cells with capacity to differentiate into mast cells. Of several ligands known to bind CCR1 and CCR4, only CCL5 induced migration of mast cells. The migration to CCL5 was mediated through both CCR1 and CCR4. In contrast, the ligands to CCR4, CCL17 and CCL22, could inhibit CCL5-induced migration. Expression of CCR1 and CCR4 could also be confirmed on mast cells in lung from asthmatic patients. Furthermore, we could demonstrate that mast cells were attracted by CCL5 produced by tumour cells in Hodgkin´s lymphoma.</p><p>In conclusion, the work in this thesis has identified two chemokines that regulates mast cell migration. This knowledge helps us understand the mechanisms behind homing of mast cell progenitors from the blood into the tissue and the accumulation of mature mast cells at sites of inflammation and tumourigenesis.</p>

The airway epithelium plays a crucial role in protecting the underlying connective tissue (CT) from noxious agents. Damage and shedding of the epithelium are observed in the airways of asthma, cystic fibrosis and rhinitis patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms by which epithelial damage occurs, and the consequences of such damage for the inflammatory process in the airways. In this study, cultured normal human bronchial epithelial cells, excised rat tracheae, and cultured murine mast cells were used as model systems. Metabolic alterations, morphological changes and cell-cell contact stabilities were investigated. The T-helper (Th)-1 cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and interleukin (IL)-1β were found to be pro-inflammatory, leading to major morphological changes, inhibitions in desmosome formation, and accelerated cell death. The Th2 cytokines, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 were found to cause no changes in cell death, nitric oxide levels and desmosome formation but instead an increase in proliferation, therefore were anti-inflammatory in this respect. Increasing the osmolarity of the airway surface liquid (ASL) altered the integrity of the tight junction (TJ) and allowed a 4-kDa compound to penetrate the epithelial layer and access the CT. This effect was reversible if the ASL was returned to 295 mOsm. Intentionally breaking the TJ with EGTA and subsequent osmolar changes in ASL demonstrated the importance of TJ and the fragility of the CT under hyperosmolar stress, leading to a disrupted CT with larger capillaries and altered elemental ion content and epithelial denudation. Hydrocortisone was shown to downregulate IL-4-induced IL-6 upregulation in murine mast cells. Furthermore, incubating mast cells with hydrocortisone lead to a new subpopulation that was morphologically unique, that displayed new cell surface markers (CD44 and CD61) and that lacked CD54. These changes modify the interactions of mast cells with surrounding cells in the CT and epithelium. In conclusion, the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and ASL osmolarity may influence the role of the airway epithelium as a barrier. The pharmacological use of hyperosmolarity to disrupt TJ reversibly may help facilitate the delivery of drugs through the airway epithelium.

Mast cells are very potent multifunctional effector cells of the immune system normally distributed throughout connective tissues. An accumulation of mast cells has been described in several pathological conditions such as allergic- and autoimmune inflammations and in certain tumours. This necessitates two different processes: 1) Recruitment of mast cell progenitors from peripheral blood; 2) Accretion of mature mast cells at sites of inflammation and tumour areas. Both processes are depending on the local production of chemotactic factors. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of chemokines and their corresponding receptors in mast cell chemotaxis. By cloning and mRNA-screening of cord blood derived mast cells several chemokine receptors were found to be expressed. Functional expression was confirmed of chemokine receptors CXCR4, CCR1 and CCR4. CXCL12, the only known ligand for CXCR4, acted as a mast cell chemotaxin and induced migration of progenitor cells with capacity to differentiate into mast cells. Of several ligands known to bind CCR1 and CCR4, only CCL5 induced migration of mast cells. The migration to CCL5 was mediated through both CCR1 and CCR4. In contrast, the ligands to CCR4, CCL17 and CCL22, could inhibit CCL5-induced migration. Expression of CCR1 and CCR4 could also be confirmed on mast cells in lung from asthmatic patients. Furthermore, we could demonstrate that mast cells were attracted by CCL5 produced by tumour cells in Hodgkin´s lymphoma. In conclusion, the work in this thesis has identified two chemokines that regulates mast cell migration. This knowledge helps us understand the mechanisms behind homing of mast cell progenitors from the blood into the tissue and the accumulation of mature mast cells at sites of inflammation and tumourigenesis.