Eukaryotes have developed stringent regulatory mechanisms that control cell division and ensure proper chromosome segregation. Maintaining genome integrity is especially important during meiosis, the specialised cell division programme in the germline that generates haploid gametes. As these cells transmit genetic information to the next generation, the consequences of meiotic errors are not restricted to an organismal level, but can directly impact the fitness of the offspring. Mammals display a high degree of sexual dimorphism in meiosis with regard to the stringency of regulatory mechanisms. This manifests in a relatively high degree of maternally-derived aneuploidies due to weaker checkpoint control in females, whereas more rigorous checkpoints in males frequently perturb fertility. Mouse models of aneuploidy often exhibit complete male sterility and early germ cell arrest, preventing the study of aneuploidy during late and post-meiotic stages in males. In this thesis, we have used the trans-chromosomic mouse model, Tc1, which carries a single copy of human chromosome 21 (HsChr21) and show that, unlike other aneuploid mouse strains, the Tc1 mouse can successfully passage the exogenous human chromosome through male meiosis and generate aneuploid offspring. Our investigations have shown that the presence of the aneuploid human chromosome causes spermatogenic defects due to an arrest at the first meiotic division. Despite this impairment, we found an unexpectedly high number of aneuploid gametes in Tc1 males and the majority of males were able to produce aneuploid offspring, albeit at a lower frequency. Transmission of HsChr21 through the male germline was less efficient compared to female germline transmission, but allowed us to study the impact of male germline-associated chromatin remodelling on the transcriptional deployment of HsChr21 in the offspring. This revealed that, despite fundamentally different developmental dynamics, male- versus female-germline passage result in indistinguishable transcriptional and regulatory phenotypes. An important pathway in the male germline involves the expression of piRNAs, a class of small non-coding RNAs that are commonly found in the germline of animals where they defend cells against transposable elements. Profiling the expression of small RNAs in the Tc1 mouse showed that conserved human piRNA clusters can be successfully transcribed by the mouse piRNA machinery. In addition, we detected Tc1-specific piRNA sequences that were neither present in human nor mouse, mapping to a human-specific repeat element. In line with the previously observed activation of human-specific repeat elements in the Tc1 mouse, this suggests that novel transcripts arising from human repeats can trigger an adaptive piRNA response, thereby demonstrating the plasticity of this pathway to newly invading repeat elements. Transcriptional profiling of spermatogenic cell populations on a single-cell level allowed us to generate an atlas of gene expression over the course of spermatogenesis and dissect meiotic silencing dynamics in the presence of aneuploidy. Transcriptional silencing during meiosis occurs in response to unpaired chromosomes and, in male germ cells, affects the sex chromosomes due to their largely unpaired nature. We found that the presence of HsChr21 has no impact on the silencing of chromosome X, however, the two chromosomes display drastically different silencing patterns with HsChr21 showing a much weaker repression. Taken together, this study revealed a higher than expected tolerance for aneuploidy in the mouse male germline thus allowing the characterisation of meiotic checkpoint mechanisms, the meiotic silencing response to unpaired chromosomes as well as piRNA expression in the presence of an exogenous human chromosome.

Submitted by (ana.araujo@ufrpe.br) on 2017-02-17T16:39:46Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Kaliny Veiga Pessoa da Silva.pdf: 1359915 bytes, checksum: de61e5532d3cfedb773fa796979687fb (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-02-17T16:39:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Kaliny Veiga Pessoa da Silva.pdf: 1359915 bytes, checksum: de61e5532d3cfedb773fa796979687fb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-02-17 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / The Manihot genus belongs to Euphorbiaceae family, has about 98 species and native to tropical regions of the Americas, with greatest diversity center in Brazil, with 80% of Manihot species, showing a large vegetative polymorphism and a potential source for cassava breeding programs. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is the only commercially cultivated species, with the shoots and the tuber roots used for both human food and animal feed. Cassava roots are also used in the manufacture of flour or in the composition of other products. Karyotypic analysis in mitotic or meiotic cells concerning to chromosomal homology, numerical and structural variations, polyploidy and evolution mechanisms of the karyotypes can provide useful information for breeding programs aimed at achieving improved cultivars. In addition, a karyotype study in many cases contributes to the increase cytogenetic markers that while certain aspects related to horticultural assist in the cultivars characterization. Manihot species are considered allotetraploid, with 2n=36 chromosome and x=9 as basic number. Natural interspecific crosses can be found frequently, making in some cases infertile hybrids. Infertility is not easily detected using phenotypic analysis. However, it is believed that these species undergone diploidization process along the evolution, now showing a meiotic behavior of a diploid. This work aimed the mitotic and meiotic analysis in nine species of the genus Manihot in order to confirm the karyotypic stability described at literature data. Three varieties of cassava and eight wild species were analised. The analysis revealed strong mitotic stability among species regarding the number and chromosome morphology, average size of chromosomes of 1.75 and maximum of two pairs of satellites. The meiosis was regular in wild species and irregular in varieties of M. esculenta 'manipeba', showing univalent, bivalent and trivalent at metaphase-anaphase I, showing typical behavior of a triploid and partly irregular meiosis in 'pornunça', producing polyads in microsporogenesis. An additional study was performed with molecular marker ISSR (Inter simple sequence repeat). Polymorphism was observed in 89.7% among the locus of the species, but as expected, there was a great genetic similarity between varieties of M. esculenta cultivated for the wild species. / O gênero Manihot pertence a família Euphorbiaceae, possui cerca de 98 espécies e é nativo das regiões tropicais das Américas, apresentando um grande centro de diversidade genética no Brasil. Cerca de 80% das espécies de Manihot ocorrem no país, exibindo amplo polimorfismo vegetativo e reunindo potencial para utilização em programas de melhoramento genético do gênero. A mandioca (M. esculenta Crantz) é a única espécie comercialmente cultivada, e dela se aproveita tanto a parte aérea como suas raízes reserva para consumo humano e animal, sendo utilizada na fabricação de farinha ou como parte da composição de diversos outros produtos e subprodutos. Análise cariotípica em células mitóticas ou meióticas em relação a homologia cromossômica, variações numéricas e estruturais, poliploidia e mecanismos evolutivos dos cariótipos podem fornecer informações úteis aos programas de melhoramento que visam a obtenção de cultivares melhoradas. Além disso, um estudo cariotípico em muitos casos contribui para o aumento no número de marcadores citológicos que quando relacionados a determinados aspectos horticulturais auxiliam na caracterização de cultivares. As espécies de Manihot são consideradas alotetraplóides, com 2n=36 e um número básico x=9. Cruzamentos interespecíficos naturais podem ocorrer com certa freqüência produzindo híbridos férteis ou não e, que, nos casos de infertilidade, essa característica pode não ser facilmente detectada por análise fenotípica. No entanto, acredita-se que estas espécies sofreram processo de diploidização ao longo da evolução, apresentando hoje um comportamento meiótico típico de diplóide. Este trabalho realizou a análise mitótica e meiótica em nove espécies do gênero Manihot, a fim de confirmar a estabilidade cariotípica descrita na literatura. Para isso, três variedades de mandioca e oito espécies silvestres foram analisadas. O estudo revelou uma forte estabilidade do cariótipo mitótico entre as espécies quanto ao número e morfologia cromossômica, o tamanho médio dos cromossomos de 1,75 e máximo de dois pares de satélites. A meiose foi regular em espécies selvagens e irregular em variedades de 'manipeba‟ M. esculenta, mostrando univalentes, bivalentes e trivalentes na metáfase, anáfase I, mostrando o comportamento típico de uma meiose triplóides e parcialmente irregular em ' pornunça", produzindo políades na microsporogênese. Adicionalmente foi realizado um estudo molecular com marcador ISSR (Simples sequência interna). Foram observados polimorfismos da ordem de 89,7% entre os lócus das espécies estudadas mostrando uma ampla variabilidade genética entre as espécies do gênero que podem ser fontes importantes de genes a serem empregados em programas de melhoramento da espécie cultivada. Entretanto, como esperado, houve uma grande similaridade genética entre as variedades da espécie M. esculenta em relação as espécies silvestres.

Orientador: Doralice Maria Cella / Banca: Carlos Ribeiro Vilela / Banca: Claudio Juan Bidau / Banca: Francisco de Assis Ganeo de Mello / Banca: Luciana Bolsoni Lourenço / Resumo: Dentre todas as ordens de aracnideos conhecidas taxonomicamente, Araneae e a segunda mais diversa, com numero de especies menor somente em relacao a Acari. Atualmente, 39.725 especies ja foram descritas, sendo que centenas de novas descricoes sao feitas a cada ano em diversas familias de aranhas. O conhecimento citogenetico sobre a ordem restringe-se a analise de 638 especies (ca 2%) do total descrito do ponto de vista taxonomico. Este trabalho tem como objetivos fornecer uma compilacao dos dados citogeneticos existentes para a ordem na literatura ate a presente data, bem como caracterizar e estabelecer as estrategias de diferenciacao cromossomica em 13 especies de aranhas pertencentes ao grupo das haploginas, clado que corresponde a somente 3.257 especies (ca 8%) do total da ordem e a apenas 41 especies (ca 6%) do total cariotipado ate os dias atuais. Aliado a baixa representatividade dos dados cariologicos, outros pontos que fazem das haploginas um grupo interessante para estudos sao a predominancia de cromossomos meta/submetacentricos e de sistemas cromossomicos de determinacao sexual simples e multiplos, muitas vezes incluindo um cromossomo Y, ambas caracteristicas raras entre os outros clados de Araneae. As especies analisadas pertencem a tres familias de haploginas, Pholcidae (Mesabolivar luteus e Micropholcus fauroti), Sicariidae (Loxosceles amazonica, Loxosceles gaucho, Loxosceles hirsuta, Loxosceles intermedia, Loxosceles laeta, Loxosceles puortoi, Loxosceles similis e Sicarius tropicus) e Scytodidae (Scytodes fusca, Scytodes globula e Scytodes itapevi). Em Pholcidae, os resultados ineditos para os dois generos mostraram ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Mesabolivar luteus (Keyserling 1891) and Micropholcus fauroti (Simon 1887) specimens were collected in Ubatuba and Rio Claro, both in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Mesabolivar luteus showed 2n(.) = 15 = 14 + X and 2n(.) = 16 = 14 + XX in mitotic metaphases and 7II + X in diplotenic cells. During late prophase I, all bivalents presented a ring shape, evidencing two chiasmata per bivalent. In this species, some diplotenic cells appear in pairs, maybe due to specific characteristics of the intercellular bridges. The metaphases II showed n = 7 or n = 8 = 7 + X chromosomes. Micropholcus fauroti evidenced 2n(.) = 17 = 16 + X in spermatogonial metaphases and 8II+X in diplotenic cells, with only one chiasma per bivalent, contrasting with M. luteus. In both species, all chromosomes were metacentrics. The X sexual chromosome was the largest element and appeared as a univalent during meiosis I. These are the first cytogenetical data for the genera Mesabolivar and Micropholcus. Additionally, M. luteus is the first chromosomally analyzed species of the New World clade and the observed diploid number for M. fauroti had not yet been recorded in Pholcidae. / Doutor

Orientador: Doralice Maria Cella / Banca: Kátia Cristina Machado Pellegrino / Banca: Douglas de Araujo / Resumo: Das subfamílias de Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae sensu lato (s.l.), formada por 6.000 espécies e 43 tribos, possui aproximadamente 100 espécies analisadas citogeneticamente e a maioria delas apresentou 2n=18=16+Xyp, o qual é menor que aquele considerado basal para os Polyphaga, 2n=20=18+Xyp. No entanto, alguns grupos de espécies demonstraram manutenção do número diplóide basal e outros, aumento desse número; algumas espécies do último grupo também exibiram variação em relação ao tipo de sistema cromossômico sexual (SCS). Considerando a revisão taxonômica recentemente realizada para as espécies de Cassidinae s.l., a existência de relação filogenética para algumas espécies dessa subfamília, a alta diversidade de espécies desse grupo registrada para a região Neotropical e o baixo número de espécies que tiveram seus cromossomos estudados, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo verificar os mecanismos envolvidos na evolução cariotípica dessa subfamília através do estudo de sete espécies da fauna brasileira e da revisão dos dados citogenéticos. Os espécimes foram coletados em Avaré e Rio Claro, SP, Nonoai, RS, e Ponta Grossa, PR. As preparações cromossômicas obtidas de embrião e testículos de machos adultos foram coradas com solução de Giemsa. As espécies Agroiconota inedita (2n=42=40+Xyp), Charidotella (sensu stricto) immaculata (2n=22=20+Xyp), Charidotella (sensu stricto) sexpunctata (2n=22=20+Xyp), e Stolas chalybaea (2n=24=22+Xyp) revelaram número diplóide maior do que aquele estabelecido como basal para os Polyphaga e cromossomos com dois braços. Os cariótipos de Cteisella confusa, Deloyala cruciata, e Metriona elatior mostraram a fórmula cromossômica 2n=18=16+Xyp, considerada modal para os Cassidinae s.l., e cromossomos com dois braços. As sete espécies apresentaram cromossomos sexuais facilmente identificáveis por serem... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Among the subfamilies of Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae sensu lato (s.l.) , formed by 6 000 species and 43 tribes, possesses approximately 100 species cytogenetically analyzed and most of them presented 2n=18=16+Xyp, which was smaller than 2n=20=18+Xyp considered basal for Polyphaga. However, some groups of species presented maintenance of the basal diploid number and others showed increase of this number; certain species of the latter group also exhibited variation in the sex chromosome system (SCS). Considering the recent taxonomic revision accomplished for the Cassidinae s.l. species, the existence of phylogenetic relationship for some species of this subfamily, the high diversity of species of this group in the Neotropical region, and the low number of Cassidinae s.l. species karyotyped so far, the aim of the present work was to verify the main mechanisms involved in the karyotype evolution of this subfamily through the study of seven species of the Brazilian fauna and the overview of the cytogenetic data. The individuals were collected in Avare and Rio Claro, SP, Nonoai, RS, and Ponta Grossa, PRo The chromosomal preparations obtained from embryo and testes of adult males were stained with Giemsa solution. The species Agroiconota inedita (2n=42=40+Xyp), Charidotella (sensu stricto) immaculata (2n=22=20+Xyp), Charidotella (sensu stricto) sexpunctata (2n=22=20+Xyp), and Stolas chalybaea (2n=24=22+Xyp) revealed diploid number higher than that established as basal for Polyphaga and biarmed chromosomes. The karyotype of Gteisella confusa, Deloyala cruciata, and Metriona elatior showed the chromosomal formulae 2n=18=16+Xyp considered modal for Cassidinae s.l. and biarmed chromosome. The seven species exhibited easily identified sex chromosomes due to their smallest size in the complement. The analysis of meiotic cells of all the species showed pachytenes with a positively heteropycnotic block... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

Introdução: O fuso meiótico dos oócitos de mamíferos pode se despolimerizar quando exposto a pequenas variações de temperatura. Este fato já está bem estabelecido e estudado em oócitos maduros em metáfase II (MII). No entanto, pouco se sabe a respeito da influência da diminuição da temperatura sobre o fuso meiótico dos oócitos imaturos. Desse modo, este estudo tem como objetivos: 1) avaliar a influência da diminuição da temperatura sobre o fuso meiótico de oócitos de camundongas maturados in vitro e 2) avaliar o fuso meiótico em oócitos humanos maturados in vitro submetidos à criopreservação pela técnica de congelação lenta ou por vitrificação quando em estágio de vesícula germinativa. Métodos: Realizaram-se dois experimentos, denominados 1 e 2, sendo o primeiro em oócitos de camundongas e o segundo em oócitos humanos. No experimento 1 oócitos imaturos de camundongas nos estágios de metáfase I (MI), telófase I(TI) e MII foram cultivados nas seguintes temperaturas: 37º C (controle), temperatura ambiente (22oC) e 4º C por 0, 10, 30 e 60 minutos. Após este período de tempo o fuso meiótico oocitário foi avaliado por meio de microscopia de luz polarizada (MLP) (LC-Polscope-Oosight image software) e imunocitoquímica (IC). No experimento 2 oócitos em estágio de vesícula germinativa (GV) coletados de pacientes submetidas à indução da ovulação e fertilização in vitro, foram divididos de forma randômica em três grupos: oócitos a fresco (A), oócitos congelados pela técnica de congelação lenta (B) e oócitos congelados pela técnica de vitrificação (C). Os oócitos a fresco, os descongelados e os aquecidos foram maturados in vitro até estágio de (MII). A análise do fuso meiótico foi realizada por microscópio invertido equipado com uma câmera de vídeo analógica e um sistema de imagens que combina luz polarizada em cristal líquido (ICSI Guard Octax). Resultados: Experimento 1: No tempo 0 e à 37º C, todos os oócitos apresentavam o fuso meiótico visível tanto pela MLP quanto pela IC. À 4º C, o número de oócitos em MI com fuso meiótico visível por meio da MLP foi menor do que com a IC, e descresceu com o tempo, fato que também ocorreu, em menor proporção, com os oócitos em TI. No entanto, a 4º C, o reconhecimento do fuso meiótico dos oócitos em TI foi semelhante tanto para MLP como para IC. Quando os oócitos MII foram expostos à 4º C, a detecção do fuso meiótico teve descréscimo diretamente proporcional ao tempo de cultura quando foi utilizada a MLP, sendo que o mesmo ocorreu para a IC, porém de forma menos pronunciada. À temperatura ambiente houve um pequeno descéscimo na visualização do fuso meiótico tanto por MLP quanto por IC, porém este não foi estatisticamente significativo para os oócitos em TI. Experimento 2: A taxa de sobrevivência imediatamente após o descongelamento/ aquecimento foi de 44,6% para o grupo B e de 79% para o grupo C. Após 24 horas em cultura , estas taxas passaram para 29,2% e 69%, respectivamente. A mediana de tempo para maturação foi de 26 horas para os grupos A e C, e de 27 horas para o grupo B. Ao final da maturação in vitro a porcentagem de oócitos em MII foi menor no grupo B e semelhante nos grupos A e C. Assim como para a detecção do fuso meiótico que foi menor no grupo B e similar nos grupos A e C. Conclusões: Houve diferença na porcentagem de despolimerização do fuso meiótico em resposta à baixa temperatura entre os oócitos de camundongas nos diferentes estágios da divisão meiótica, sendo menor nos oócitos em TI. A porcentagem de despolimerização do fuso meiótico foi diretamente proporcional ao tempo de cultivo, à exceção dos oócitos em TI à temperatura ambiente. Os oócitos hmanos em GV vitrificados apresentaram melhores taxas de sobrevivência quando comparados com oócitos humanos em GV criopreservados pelo congelamento lento. Os oócitos humanos em GV vitrificados apresentaram taxas semelhantes de maturação in vitro e detecção do fuso meiótico polimerizado quando comparados a oócitos a fresco / Introduction: The meiotic spindle of most mammals is sensitive to cooling and depolymerizes even after a slight reduction in temperature. This is well described and studied on matured oocytes at metaphase II (MII). However, little is known about the influence of low temperatures under meiotic spindle of imature oocytes. In this way, we sougth to evaluate: 1) the influence of low temperatures on mice oocyte meiotic spindle matured in vitro e 2) the oocyte meiotic spindle from human oocytes matured in vitro and cryopreserved by slow-rate freezing or vitrification at GV stage. Methods: Two experiments were done: the first one on mice and the second one on women.At experiment 1, immature mice oocytes at metaphase I (MI), telophase I (TI) and MII were cultured at 37º C (control), room temperature (22oC) and 4º C for 0, 10, 30 and 60 minutes and then spindle analysis was made with polarized light microscopy (PLM) (LC-Polscope-Oosight image software) or immunocytochemistry (ICC). At experiment 2, GV oocytes retrieved from women submitted to ovulation induction and in vitro fertilization were randomly divided in three groups: fresh oocytes (A), cryopreserved by slow-freezing (B) and cryopreserved by vitrification (C). Fresh, thawed and warmed oocytes were matured in vitro to metaphase II oocytes (MII). A meiotic spindle analysis was done by polarized light microscopy (ICSI Guard Octax). Results: Experiment 1: At time 0 min and 37º C, all oocytes had polymerized spindles both at PLM or ICC. At 4º C, the number of MI oocytes with detectable spindles at PLM was smaller than those analysed by ICC, and it decreased with time, which had also occured with TI oocytes at a smaller proportion. However, at 4º C, TI meiotic spindle recognition with polarized light microscopy and ICC was comparable. When MII oocytes were cultured at 4º C, the spindle visualization decreased proportionally in correlation with culture time at PLM, and the same happened with ICC in a less pronounced manner. At room temperature there was a little descrease regarding visualization of meiotic spindle, both at PLM and ICC, altought it was not significant for TI oocytes. Experiment 2: Oocyte survival immediately after thawing/warming were 44.6% for group B and 79% for group C. After 24 hours of culture, oocyte survival was 29.2% and 69%, respectively. The median time for maturation was 26 hours for groups A and C, and 27 hours for group B. The percentage of MII after maturation in vitro were smaller in group B and similar between groups A and C. The same oocured for spindle visualization which were lower in group B and similar between groups A and C. Conclusions: There was a difference on the percentages of meiotic spindle depolymerization in response to cooling in mice oocytes at different stages of meiotic division. Spindle depolymerization was lower in TI. Also, meiotic spindle depolimerization was proportional to culture time, except for TI oocytes at room temperature.Vitrified GV oocytes had a better survival when warmed, compared to slow-rate frozen oocytes. Vitrified GV oocytes had similar maturation in vitro rates and polymerized spindles detection when compared to fresh oocytes

La polyploïdisation, e.g. l’augmentation du nombre de jeux de chromosomes chez un organisme, est un phénomène évolutif qui aurait contribué à l’avènement de grandes étapes évolutives, telles que l’apparition de la graine et de la fleur chez les plantes. La polyploïdisation peut être induite par des évènements environnementaux, et notamment par des variations thermiques entraînant la production de gamètes 2n. Il a été montré, chez le rosier, que l’application de températures élevées (dès 30°) lors de la gamétogénèse mâle, induisait une forte production de diplogamètes ainsi qu’une forte répression de l’expression du gène RhPS1, orthologue du gène AtPS1 d’A. thaliana. AtPS1 est impliqué dans la formation de diplogamètes, dont le mutant perte de fonction présente une forte production de diplogamètes mâles, issus d’anomalies méiotiques en Métaphase II. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’apporter des éléments permettant de mieux connaitre et de caractériser la fonction de RhPS1, par (i) l’analyse des phénotypes de lignées de rosier présentant une diminution de ces transcrits, (ii) en recherchant ces interactants protéiques potentiels et (iii) en recherchant les gènes potentiellement régulés par RhPS1. Les résultats de cette thèse montrent que RhPS1 aurait une fonction similaire à AtPS1 chez A. thaliana, qui induit, lors d’une baisse d’expression, des anomalies méiotiques uniquement lors des étapes de métaphase II ou lors de la transition Anaphase I/Métaphase II. Même si aucun interactant protéique n’a pu être trouvé, quelques gènes potentiellement régulés par RhPS1 ont pu être identifiés. / Polyploidization, e.g. the increase in the number of chromosomes sets in an organism, is a phenomenon that would have contributed to the advent of major evolutionary steps such as the emergence of the seed and the flower in plants.Polyploidization can be induced by environmental clues, more particularly by thermal variations resulting in the production of 2n. It has been shown, in roses, that the application of high temperatures (from 30°C) during male gametogenesis leads to a high production of diplogametes as well as a high repression of the expression of the gene RhPS1, orthologue of the A. Thaliana AtPS1 gene. AtPS1 is involved in the formation of diplogametes, whose loss of function mutant has a strong production of male diplogametes, resulting from meiotic abnormalities. This work aims at characterizing or providing elements allowing for better comprehension of the RhPS1 function, by (i) the analysis of the phenotypes of rose lines showing a decrease of these transcripts, (ii) by looking for these potential protein interactors and (iii) investigating genes potentially regulated by RhPS1. The results of this work show that RhPS1 has a similar function to AtPS1 in A. thaliana. Thus, when this gene has a lower expression, meiotic abnormalities are only observed during the metaphase II stages or during the transition of Anaphase I / Metaphase II. Even though no protein interactant could be found, some genes potentially regulated by RhPS1 have been identified.

Poor egg quality is the leading cause of pregnancy loss and Down's syndrome. While even eggs in young women frequently contain an incorrect number of chromosomes and are therefore unlikely to give rise to a viable pregnancy, the incidence of chromosomally abnormal eggs increases strikingly with advancing maternal age. Why egg quality declines dramatically as women approach their forties remains one of the outstanding questions in developmental biology. This PhD thesis demonstrates how unforeseen features of kinetochore organization that are unique to meiosis render this cell division process in mammals particularly prone to errors. Firstly, my results uncovered an unexpected multi-subunit organization of the meiotic kinetochore, which is widely conserved across mammals and biases eggs towards errors. Secondly, I identified two independent mechanisms that predispose eggs from older women to aneuploidy. The first mechanism affects the fidelity of meiosis I. My analysis revealed that human oocytes challenge the paradigm that sister kinetochores are fully fused. Instead, I demonstrated that sister kinetochores disjoin as women get older, which promoted erroneous kinetochore-microtubule attachments. This in turn allowed chromosomes to rotate on the spindle and provided a mechanistic explanation for reverse segregation - a recently discovered meiotic error that is unique to humans. Secondly, I pioneered the use of super-resolution microscopy to study chromosome architecture in human eggs and discovered that individual kinetochores during meiosis II in mammals are composed of previously unidentified subdomains. In young females, these subdomains are joined together by cohesin complexes. With age, kinetochores fragment into two pieces. Fragmented kinetochores frequently attach merotelically to spindle microtubules, which predisposes aged eggs to errors. What severely hinders our progress in identifying causes of human infertility is that numerous features of human meiosis are not represented in mice. To overcome this challenge, I developed an experimental platform to mimic the age-related changes that occur in humans in oocytes from young mice. I achieved this by extending the applications of Trim-Away, a novel method to degrade endogenous proteins even in primary cells, to partially deplete proteins. Furthermore, I established a new experimental model system to study human-like aspects of meiosis in live non-rodent cells in real time: pig oocytes. Together, these results set foundations for new therapeutic approaches to extend reproductive lifespan by counteracting the age-related loss in kinetochore integrity that this study identified. Furthermore, partial Trim-Away and studying meiosis in pigs opens new directions for meiotic research.

The Prdm9 gene (PR domain containing 9, Meisetz, Hybrid sterility 1) encodes enzyme that trimethylates histone 3 on lysines 4 and 36. These methylation marks determine the positions of DNA double-strand breaks that are repaired by meiotic homologous recombination. In this study, we assayed genetic interactions of Prdm9 with two genes important for spermatogenesis - Mili (Piwil2) involved in piRNA biogenesis and Mybl1 encoding transcription factor that regulates many genes important for prophase I, including piRNA precursors. We crossed laboratory mice carrying mutation in Prdm9 with heterozygotes for mutation in Mybl1 or Mili, and created compound heterozygotes and, in case of Mybl1, also double homozygotes. We assessed body weight and male fertility parameters (weight of testes, sperm count, malformed sperm, percentage of tubules containing spermatocytes and of abnormal nuclei of pachytene spermatocytes) of these mice and compared them to controls. We also investigated the effect of Mybl1 and Mili mutations on fecundity of F1 intersubspecific hybrids. Our results revealed possible interactions of Prdm9 and Mybl1 in the laboratory mouse. Decreased gene dosage of Mybl1 reduced fertility of intersubspecific F1 hybrids. Interaction between Prdm9 and Mili in both laboratory mouse and F1 hybrids remain...

Introdução: O fuso meiótico dos oócitos de mamíferos pode se despolimerizar quando exposto a pequenas variações de temperatura. Este fato já está bem estabelecido e estudado em oócitos maduros em metáfase II (MII). No entanto, pouco se sabe a respeito da influência da diminuição da temperatura sobre o fuso meiótico dos oócitos imaturos. Desse modo, este estudo tem como objetivos: 1) avaliar a influência da diminuição da temperatura sobre o fuso meiótico de oócitos de camundongas maturados in vitro e 2) avaliar o fuso meiótico em oócitos humanos maturados in vitro submetidos à criopreservação pela técnica de congelação lenta ou por vitrificação quando em estágio de vesícula germinativa. Métodos: Realizaram-se dois experimentos, denominados 1 e 2, sendo o primeiro em oócitos de camundongas e o segundo em oócitos humanos. No experimento 1 oócitos imaturos de camundongas nos estágios de metáfase I (MI), telófase I(TI) e MII foram cultivados nas seguintes temperaturas: 37º C (controle), temperatura ambiente (22oC) e 4º C por 0, 10, 30 e 60 minutos. Após este período de tempo o fuso meiótico oocitário foi avaliado por meio de microscopia de luz polarizada (MLP) (LC-Polscope-Oosight image software) e imunocitoquímica (IC). No experimento 2 oócitos em estágio de vesícula germinativa (GV) coletados de pacientes submetidas à indução da ovulação e fertilização in vitro, foram divididos de forma randômica em três grupos: oócitos a fresco (A), oócitos congelados pela técnica de congelação lenta (B) e oócitos congelados pela técnica de vitrificação (C). Os oócitos a fresco, os descongelados e os aquecidos foram maturados in vitro até estágio de (MII). A análise do fuso meiótico foi realizada por microscópio invertido equipado com uma câmera de vídeo analógica e um sistema de imagens que combina luz polarizada em cristal líquido (ICSI Guard Octax). Resultados: Experimento 1: No tempo 0 e à 37º C, todos os oócitos apresentavam o fuso meiótico visível tanto pela MLP quanto pela IC. À 4º C, o número de oócitos em MI com fuso meiótico visível por meio da MLP foi menor do que com a IC, e descresceu com o tempo, fato que também ocorreu, em menor proporção, com os oócitos em TI. No entanto, a 4º C, o reconhecimento do fuso meiótico dos oócitos em TI foi semelhante tanto para MLP como para IC. Quando os oócitos MII foram expostos à 4º C, a detecção do fuso meiótico teve descréscimo diretamente proporcional ao tempo de cultura quando foi utilizada a MLP, sendo que o mesmo ocorreu para a IC, porém de forma menos pronunciada. À temperatura ambiente houve um pequeno descéscimo na visualização do fuso meiótico tanto por MLP quanto por IC, porém este não foi estatisticamente significativo para os oócitos em TI. Experimento 2: A taxa de sobrevivência imediatamente após o descongelamento/ aquecimento foi de 44,6% para o grupo B e de 79% para o grupo C. Após 24 horas em cultura , estas taxas passaram para 29,2% e 69%, respectivamente. A mediana de tempo para maturação foi de 26 horas para os grupos A e C, e de 27 horas para o grupo B. Ao final da maturação in vitro a porcentagem de oócitos em MII foi menor no grupo B e semelhante nos grupos A e C. Assim como para a detecção do fuso meiótico que foi menor no grupo B e similar nos grupos A e C. Conclusões: Houve diferença na porcentagem de despolimerização do fuso meiótico em resposta à baixa temperatura entre os oócitos de camundongas nos diferentes estágios da divisão meiótica, sendo menor nos oócitos em TI. A porcentagem de despolimerização do fuso meiótico foi diretamente proporcional ao tempo de cultivo, à exceção dos oócitos em TI à temperatura ambiente. Os oócitos hmanos em GV vitrificados apresentaram melhores taxas de sobrevivência quando comparados com oócitos humanos em GV criopreservados pelo congelamento lento. Os oócitos humanos em GV vitrificados apresentaram taxas semelhantes de maturação in vitro e detecção do fuso meiótico polimerizado quando comparados a oócitos a fresco / Introduction: The meiotic spindle of most mammals is sensitive to cooling and depolymerizes even after a slight reduction in temperature. This is well described and studied on matured oocytes at metaphase II (MII). However, little is known about the influence of low temperatures under meiotic spindle of imature oocytes. In this way, we sougth to evaluate: 1) the influence of low temperatures on mice oocyte meiotic spindle matured in vitro e 2) the oocyte meiotic spindle from human oocytes matured in vitro and cryopreserved by slow-rate freezing or vitrification at GV stage. Methods: Two experiments were done: the first one on mice and the second one on women.At experiment 1, immature mice oocytes at metaphase I (MI), telophase I (TI) and MII were cultured at 37º C (control), room temperature (22oC) and 4º C for 0, 10, 30 and 60 minutes and then spindle analysis was made with polarized light microscopy (PLM) (LC-Polscope-Oosight image software) or immunocytochemistry (ICC). At experiment 2, GV oocytes retrieved from women submitted to ovulation induction and in vitro fertilization were randomly divided in three groups: fresh oocytes (A), cryopreserved by slow-freezing (B) and cryopreserved by vitrification (C). Fresh, thawed and warmed oocytes were matured in vitro to metaphase II oocytes (MII). A meiotic spindle analysis was done by polarized light microscopy (ICSI Guard Octax). Results: Experiment 1: At time 0 min and 37º C, all oocytes had polymerized spindles both at PLM or ICC. At 4º C, the number of MI oocytes with detectable spindles at PLM was smaller than those analysed by ICC, and it decreased with time, which had also occured with TI oocytes at a smaller proportion. However, at 4º C, TI meiotic spindle recognition with polarized light microscopy and ICC was comparable. When MII oocytes were cultured at 4º C, the spindle visualization decreased proportionally in correlation with culture time at PLM, and the same happened with ICC in a less pronounced manner. At room temperature there was a little descrease regarding visualization of meiotic spindle, both at PLM and ICC, altought it was not significant for TI oocytes. Experiment 2: Oocyte survival immediately after thawing/warming were 44.6% for group B and 79% for group C. After 24 hours of culture, oocyte survival was 29.2% and 69%, respectively. The median time for maturation was 26 hours for groups A and C, and 27 hours for group B. The percentage of MII after maturation in vitro were smaller in group B and similar between groups A and C. The same oocured for spindle visualization which were lower in group B and similar between groups A and C. Conclusions: There was a difference on the percentages of meiotic spindle depolymerization in response to cooling in mice oocytes at different stages of meiotic division. Spindle depolymerization was lower in TI. Also, meiotic spindle depolimerization was proportional to culture time, except for TI oocytes at room temperature.Vitrified GV oocytes had a better survival when warmed, compared to slow-rate frozen oocytes. Vitrified GV oocytes had similar maturation in vitro rates and polymerized spindles detection when compared to fresh oocytes

La compréhension des mécanismes régissant la recombinaison méiotique chez le blé tendre (Triticum aestivum L.) devient essentielle puisqu’elle est le levier principal utilisé par les sélectionneurs pour le brassage génétique et obtenir de nouvelles variétés élites comportant des introgressions de régions d’intérêt provenant de ressources génétiques exotiques. A cette fin, l’utilisation chez le blé tendre d’une nouvelle biotechnologie de ciblage de la recombinaison méiotique développée chez la levure par la société Meiogenix semble être prometteuse. Cette biotechnologie, nommée SpiX, fait intervenir un domaine protéique de liaison à l’ADN couplé à la protéine SPO11 responsable des cassures double-brins de l’ADN, initiatrices de la recombinaison méiotique ou crossovers (CO). Le développement d’une nouvelle technique de conservation des embryons immatures a permis d’améliorer les conditions de transformation par biolistique du blé tendre pour l’application de la technologie SpiX. L’exploitation de la séquence du génome du blé a permis d’isoler les gènes codant pour les protéines SPO11 du blé tendre. La complémentation hétérologue inédite de mutants pour les protéines SPO11 d’Arabidopsis thaliana avec les orthologues ainsi découverts chez le blé tendre montre leur grande conservation de séquence et de fonction au sein des plantes et leur potentielle fonctionnalité pour la biotechnologie SpiX. Enfin le test de différents domaines de liaison à l’ADN et de différentes cibles le long du chromosome 3B de blé tendre montre que la biotechnologie SpiX requiert des ajustements en fonction de l’espèce chez laquelle celle-ci doit fonctionner. Ces résultats sont ainsi l’opportunité de lever un premier voile sur le ciblage de la recombinaison méiotique chez une espèce de grande culture et de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de détermination des sites de cassures double-brins initiatrices de la recombinaison méiotique chez le blé tendre. / Understanding the mechanisms governing meiotic recombination in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is essential since it is the main tool used by breeders for genetic admixing and obtaining new elite varieties with introgression of regions of interest from exotic genetic resources. To this end, the use in bread wheat of a new biotechnology targeting meiotic recombination developed in yeast by Meiogenix seems to be promising. This biotechnology, named SpiX, involves a DNA-binding domain fused to the SPO11 protein responsible for DNA double-strand breaks, initiating meiotic recombination or crossovers (CO). The development of a new conservation protocol for wheat immature embryos has improved the conditions for bread wheat transformation through biolistic, and thus for the application of SpiX technology. The exploitation of the wheat genome sequence made it possible to isolate the bread wheat genes for SPO11 proteins. A novel heterologous complementation of Arabidopsis thaliana mutants for SPO11s with the bread wheat orthologous freshly discovered shows their great conservation of sequence and function within plants and their potential functionality for SpiX biotechnology. Finally, the testing of different DNA-binding domains and different targets along bread wheat 3B chromosome shows that SpiX biotechnology requires adjustments depending on the species in which it has to function. These results are the opportunity to uncover the targeting of meiotic recombination in a widely cultivated crop species and to understand the mechanisms determining sites for double-strand breaks prior to meiotic recombination in wheat.