The purpose of this study was to accomplish three major objectives: to quantitatively understand the applicability of an existing list of characteristics of mental toughness to a population of ultramarathon runners, to establish a new definition of mental toughness specific to ultra runners, and to conduct interviews to understand experiences, examples, and development of mental toughness. A mixed-methods approach was utilized with online surveys and semi-structured interviews. Participants were ultramarathon runners who had completed at least one organized ultramarathon event of 50 miles or more, all of whom were at least 18 years of age. The online survey yielded 408 completed questionnaires and 476 definitions of mental toughness in ultramarathon running. The online survey consisted of an open-ended question on defining mental toughness, and a list of 30 characteristics of mental toughness from Jones and colleagues' (2007) mental toughness study on elite athletes. The survey utilized a 5-point Likert scale, and a Basic Demographic Questionnaire in addition to questions relevant to running experience. The existing characteristics represented limited applicability to the population of ultramarathon runners, with most prevalent attributes on drive towards success, goal attainment, learning from failure, and coping under pressure. In the 476 definitions of mental toughness, the most prominent themes were persistence, perseverance, utilization of psychological skills, and adapting to environmental and duration-related obstacles. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 randomly selected ultramarathon runners. Interviews were designed to verify a raw definition of mental toughness in ultramarathon runners, identify traits of mentally tough ultra runners, understand experiences and examples of mental toughness, and understand how mental toughness could be developed. Grounded theory was utilized to isolate themes; many factors emerged and were categorized based on research questions. The definition of mental toughness was supported with the addition of an emotional and perceptual component. Traits of mentally tough runners supported the traits found in the definitions of mental toughness. Experiences and examples of mental toughness included situations of using psychological skills and witnessing a runner overcome adversity. Lastly, development of mental toughness was most highlighted in social aspects of the ultra culture and experiences both in running and in life. / Kinesiology

Mental toughness has received extensive research attention in recent years because of its intuitive and theoretical association with successful performance. However, several significant omissions in understanding remained. This thesis aimed to address these gaps through various research approaches and methodologies, collectively resulting in a biopsychological perspective. The primary objectives were to provide a more holistic perspective of mental toughness and generate quantitative support for the various biological (2D:4D) cognitive-affective (self-structure), physiological (cortisol response) and behavioural (performance) differences that have been associated with the construct. The findings suggested that mental toughness is a multifaceted construct and manifests in several areas of human functioning; specifically, a particular cognitive-affective profile may underlie mental toughness (they possess a positive self-concept and a particular self-structuring style, namely integration). Furthermore, levels of cortisol during a competitive event (a physiological indicator of perceived stress levels) were significantly negatively related to mental toughness, suggesting that mentally tough individuals have a reduced perception of threat in competitive situations (giving support for the notion that they perceive competition or stress as a potential challenge for personal growth and improvement). An objective marker of mental toughness was also supported; specifically, 2D:4D ratio (indicative of prenatal testosterone levels) related significantly with scores on a mental toughness scale, giving support for the biological underpinning of the construct and an objective marker of mental toughness. Finally, two case examples are provided to demonstrate the usability of these important markers (cognitive, biological and physiological) in an applied context.

This dissertation consists of two projects. Project 1 is comprised of two systematic review studies in which self-report measures of adult characterological resilience were identified and summarized. In Study 1, 51 personality-based instruments across five personality-based resilience constructs (ego-strength, grit, hardiness, mental toughness, and resilience) were identified. Information for each measure inclusive of measure title, construct, item count, factors, response scale and items, scoring method, and score range was summarized. In Study 2, 1,322 articles were identified that described 1,193 studies and 1,351 participant samples who completed between one and four of these resilience measures. Measure use frequency and contextual use information related to study and sample attributes are summarized. Project 2 is a series of meta-analyses that were conducted to investigate the psychometric properties of scores on the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) reported in 149 studies of adult participants. Reliability generalization methods are used to summarize 86 observations of internal consistency (mean Cronbach’s α = .86) and validity generalization methods are used to summarize eight observations of convergent validity (Mr = .61). Concurrent validity is also investigated via validity generalization methods for the most frequently observed mental health correlates of BRS scores. For each set of mental health measures, an estimated summary effect was calculated (anxiety, Mr = -.47; depression, Mr = -.49; optimism, Mr = .44; social support, Mr = .24; and stress, Mr = -.53). Of the significant moderators conducted for concurrent validity estimates, the largest was sample category (accounting for 100% of the variance in the observed correlations between the BRS and measures of social support). Geographic location and participant age, accounted for 55%, and 24%, of the variation in the observed correlations between the BRS and significantly moderated the relation between the BRS and perceived stress. Discussion for both projects include how the obtained relate to resilience theory, and the potential broader implications of these findings. Also based upon these reviews and meta-analyses, the challenges of resilience measure use are discussed and observations/recommendations are provided.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Mental skills are critical to the development of a positive mind-set in the athlete in order to develop the ability to concentrate more, focus attention, manage arousal, develop self-esteem and thereby enhance self-confidence in competitive sport. This study was an exploratory study to investigate how well Zimbabwean inter-collegiate athletes were prepared mentally and how this was handled during their participation in inter-collegiate games. The study focused specifically on just one group of athletes, netballers.

The obesity epidemic in youth is increasing, due to the decreasing levels of physical activity within the youth population. One variable that has never been examined as a correlate of physical activity is mental toughness. Mental toughness is a psychological trait characterized by determination, resiliency, and perform optimally regardless of the circumstances. In order to evaluate this trait the MeBActive-Youth was developed. The purpose of this study was to first, evaluate the psychometric properties of the newly developed measure and secondly, to assess the relationship of mental toughness, social support and self-efficacy to physical activity. Participants (N = 106) completed a demographic survey, the MeBActive-Youth, Social Support and Exercise Survey (SSES), Physical Activity Self-Efficacy Scale (PASES), and Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (PAQ-A). The Rasch Rating Scale Model showed that the MeBActive-Youth had appropriate items (range of 0.53 – -0.64 logits) for the sample and measured mental toughness appropriately. All but four of the items had a fit statistic within the acceptable range, but only one item had a much higher statistic (infit = 1.68 logits). Although the four response options were all utilized appropriately, it may be beneficial to reduce them to three. There was a significant positive correlation between MeBActive-Youth and physical activity (ρ = .52, p ≤ .01) and PASES (ρ = .30, p ≤ .01). The correlation between social support from friends and family and MeBActive-Youth was not significant (ρ = .12, p ≥ .05; ρ = .17, p ≥ .05). There was a positive significant correlation between, physical activity and familial and friend social support (ρ = .47, p ≤ .01; ρ = .27 p ≤ .05), PASES (ρ = .34, p ≤ .01) and mental toughness. The MeBActive-Youth is a valid and reliable instrument yet can be improved with slight changes. This study showed that there is a strong positive correlation between mental toughness, self-efficacy and physical activity. Positive correlations were also found between physical activity and all the measured variables.

The aim of the present study was to review the elite Crossfit athletes’ opinions of the importance of mental toughness to achieve optimal performance. A number of other research studies looking at psychological factors such as grit and mental toughness supports the idea that elite athletes should develop their mental capacity to improve their individual performance.  The method and research design consists of a qualitative interview study where four elite crossfit athletes have been interviewed. The athletes participated in a semi-structured interview about mental toughness, the attributes of what it means to be a mentally tough athlete and if it is important to be mentally tough to become successful in the sport of Crossfit. A semi-structured interview is where a list of questions are prepared at the same time as giving the interviewee room to elaborate and raise issues that the researcher may have missed (Clarke & Braun, 2013). The interviews where then analysed through a thematic analysis. The participants that were included in this study consistedof Swedish elite Crossfit athletes.  The results were divided into four themes which were: control commitment, challenge and confidence. These themes are from the 4 C model which is the definition of mental toughness by Clough et al. (2002). Challenge seems to be something that motivates the athletes to reach higher and something they also seek out. All the athletes agreed that commitment and confidence was crucial for having success in the sport and they also mentioned that mental toughness was important to be able to perform at your absolute best. The feeling of being in control was also mentioned as something that they strived for in the competition environment.  The interview results together with the presented existing research indicates that according to elite Crossfit athletes, mental toughness is very valuable for a professional Crossfit athlete to both develop and maintain to become and stay successful in the sport. This could be valuable information for both coaches and athletes in the sport. / Det övergripande syftet med denna studie var att granska Crossfit-elitidrottares åsikter om vikten av mental toughness för att uppnå optimal prestation. Ett antal andra olika forskningsstudier som tittar på psykologiska faktorer som grit och mental toughness stödjer tanken att elitidrottare bör utveckla sin mentala förmåga för att förbättra sin individuella prestation.   Metoden och forskningsdesignen består av en kvalitativ intervjustudie där fyra elit Crossfit atleter har intervjuats. Atleterna deltog i en semistrukturerad intervju om mental tuffhet, egenskaperna för vad det innebär att vara en mentalt tuff idrottare och om det är viktigt att vara mentalt tuff för att bli framgångsrik i sporten Crossfit. En semistrukturerad intervju är där en intervjuguide förbereds samtidigt som intervjupersonen får utrymme att utveckla sina svar och lyfta frågor som forskaren kan ha missat (Clarke & Braun, 2013). Intervjuerna analyserades sedan genom en tematisk analys. Deltagarna som ingick i denna studie bestod av fyra svenska elit Crossfit atleter.  Resultaten delades sedan in i fyra teman: kontroll, engagemang, utmaning och självförtroende. Dessa teman är enligt 4 C-modellen vilket är Clough et al., (2002) definition av mental toughness. Utmaningar verkar vara något som motiverar idrottarna att sträva högre och något de också söker sig till. Alla idrottare var överens om att engagemang och självförtroende var avgörande för att nå framgång i sporten och de nämnde också att mental toughness var viktigt för att kunna prestera på topp som atlet. Känslan av att vara i kontroll nämndes också som något man strävade efter i tävlingssammanhang.  Intervjuresultaten tillsammans med den befintliga forskningen indikerar att mental toughness enligt elit Crossfit atleter, är mycket värdefullt för en elit Crossfit-atlet att både utveckla och bibehålla för att både bli och förbli framgångsrik inom sporten. Detta kan vara värdefull information för både coacher och atleter i sporten.

The purpose of this case study was to answer 5 primary questions in order to determine the impact (efficacy, efficiency, and value) of the educational intervention known as the mental skills training program (MSTP) as implemented with an NCAA Division I volleyball team. The primary evaluation questions are (1) Was individual and/or team performance enhanced during the season? (2) How did the intervention of the MSTP impact individual and team mental toughness? (3) How did the intervention of the MSTP impact team communication and team chemistry? (4) How did the coaches and student-athletes view the investment of time and effort (value/worth)? (5) Was the program delivered effectively and efficiently? The core mental skills that comprise the MSTP are goal setting, visualization, feelazation, energy management, and effective thinking which when integrated encourage mental toughness. The program evaluation contains an instructional design (ID) that incorporated a flexible curriculum to meet the weekly needs of the team. A modified Gerlach and Ely (1980) ID model is utilized to direct the design process and also as a prescriptive evaluation guide. The evaluation utilized quantitative instruments including surveys, questionnaires, and assessments of the effectiveness and efficiency of delivery by the mental skills trainer. Qualitative data includes interviews and field notes consisting of observations, member checks, and peer debriefing. The results of the data indicate individual performance and mental toughness were enhanced; team performance and mental toughness may have been improved. Team chemistry was enhanced while team communication was not. The program was considered valuable and worthwhile and was delivered effectively and efficiently. The decision components of the program yielded an 84.69% positive program evaluation rating. In discussion of these results, team communication may be improved with a greater emphasis on teambuilding early in the program. Gains in mental toughness exceeded expectations, and a foothold has been established for future research in this area. Regarding team performance, expanding categories in survey instruments may yield a more positive evaluation. Finally, program evaluation may provide a viable research vehicle for applied sport psychology to demonstrate the efficacy of mental skills training for performance enhancement. / Ph. D.

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Determining the factors that contribute to mental toughness development in athletes has become a focus for researchers as coaches, athletes, and others extol its influence on performance success. In this study we examined a model of mental toughness development based on achievement goal theory, assessing the relations between motivational climates, goal orientations, and mental toughness. Five hundred ninety-nine varsity athletes, representing 13 different sports from six different high schools in a southwestern United States school district, participated in the study. Athletes completed self-report measures assessing parent, peer, and coach motivational climates, goal orientations, and their mental toughness. Initially, I examined the measurement model and found it fit the data well both in the exploratory (SRMR = .06; CFI = .94) and confirmatory (SRMR = .06; CFI = .95) samples. Second, the structural model was examined and found to fit the data well in both the exploratory (SRMR = .08; CFI = .93) and confirmatory samples (SRMR = .07, CFI = .95). Parent task-involving climate, (β = .55; p < .05) and coach task-involving climate (β = .32; p < .05), but not peer task-involving climate (β = .05), were associated with task goal orientation (R2 = .57). Ego goal orientation (R2 = .32) was explained by peer ego-involving climate (β = .15; p < .05), parent ego-involving climate (β = .39; p < .05), and coach ego-involving climate (β = .16; p < .05). Finally, only task goal orientation (β = .75; p < .05) was related to the athletes’ mental toughness (R2 = .56); the ego goal orientation pathway was not significant (β = .04). These results speak to the potential positive influence of parents and coaches on athletes’ mental toughness through their endorsement of task-involving messages and pursuits leading to the development of a task goal orientation.

The importance of the study is grounded in the need to increase the success rates at community colleges, which is critical for meeting national goals for college attainment and promoting upward social mobility. The majority of community college students arrive unprepared for college-level math and are placed into developmental math. A drive to increase math performance has focused on course redesigns incorporating adaptive learning technologies. While adept at adapting subject matter to students' individual needs, there remains the need to understand the role of student metacognition in the learning process. The purpose of this study is to investigate the association between specific learner attributes and academic success in developmental math for students who are acquiring their skills through an adaptive learning technology environment. The Motivated Strategies of Learning Questionnaire, GRIT, and Mental Toughness Questionnaires were used to uncover relationships and differences between measured traits, student success, and demographic items such as age, gender, race, amount of time spent in paid work, and previous credits. Survey results were analyzed using a correlation research design and demonstrated significant relationships between time and gender, topics mastered and race, time and Motivated Strategies for Learning, time and self-regulation, and grade and emotional control. The study makes recommendations about how to best develop and leverage adaptive learning technologies in the future.