A micromanufatura via usinagem apresenta algumas dificuldades, principalmente aquelas relacionadas à formação do cavaco, pois a espessura de corte passa a ter a dimensão do tamanho de grão do material da peça e da microgeometria da aresta de corte. Em operações de microcorte, a microestrutura do material é um fator importante no controle da geração da superfície da peça, mecanismo de formação de cavaco, etc. Este trabalho de pesquisa avaliou o efeito do tamanho ultrafino dos grãos do material da peça sobre os fenômenos inerentes ao corte no microfresamento. As variáveis de usinagem investigadas foram avanço por dente (fz), velocidade de corte (vc), diâmetro da microfresa (d&#934) e raio de aresta de corte (re), visando avaliar o mecanismo de formação do cavaco, acabamento da peça e integridade superficial. Os materiais utilizados nos experimentos foram um aço bifásico (ferrita-perlita) com tamanho de grão ferrítico de 11 µm e outro de microestrutura homogênea de grãos ultrafinos com 0,7 µm, ambos com mesma composição química e baixo-carbono. Dois grupos de ensaios foram propostos: (1) macro e microfresamento e (2) microfresamento de canais. O tipo de usinagem foi o de fresamento de topo, sem emprego de fluido de corte. Os ensaios de usinagem foram executados em centros de usinagem CNC. As ferramentas de corte foram de metal duro com recobrimentos, diâmetro 16 mm na escala macro de usinagem, 200 e 800 µm na escala micro. A adequação da microestrutura do material da peça à redução da escala de usinagem, através do mecanismo de refino de grão, gerou alguns aspectos favoráveis à microusinagem, como melhor acabamento (Ssk≈0 e Sku≈3), formação de cavaco contínuo e menor formação de rebarbas com a redução da espessura de corte (fz&#8804re), possibilitando aplicações em microfabricação por corte com ferramenta de geometria definida utilizando aços baixo carbono, antes limitadas à estruturas na construção civil e peças obtidas por conformação mecânica. / Micro manufacturing by means of machining presents difficulties, mainly those related to chip formation, since chip thickness become as small as normal material grain size, as well as the cutting edge radius. At such micro cutting operations material microstructure ascends as a very important issue in terms of machining output, i.e. surface roughness, subsurface damages, cutting forces, etc. This research evaluated the effect of the intervention on the metallurgical microstructure of the material on the cutting phenomena inherent in micromachining. The variables investigated were the feed per tooth (ft), cutting speed (vc), micro end-mill diameter (d&#934) and cutting edge radius (re). The materials used in the experiments were a steel two-phase (ferrite-pearlite) with ferritic grain size of 11 µm and similar one with homogeneous microstructure and ultrafine grains (0.7 µm), both low carbon. The mechanism of chip formation, surface finish and surface integrity were investigated and correlated with the studied variables. Two groups of machining experiments were proposed: (1) macro and micro end-milling and (2) microchannels. Overall, the type of machining was the end milling, without using cutting fluid. The machining tests were carried on a CNC machining center. The cutting tools are coated, diameter 16 mm in macro scale of machining, 200 and 800 &#956m in micro scale. the adequacy of the microstructure of the workpiece material to the reduce the scale of machining generated some favorable aspects to micromachining, such as better finishing (Ssk≈0 e Sku≈3), continuous chip formation and lesser burr formation by reducing the cutting thickness (fz&#8804re), enabling micromanufacturing applications for low carbon steels, once limited to structures in the civil construction and pieces obtained by mechanical forming.

Cette étude concerne l’étude des écoulements diphasiques dans le cadre du refroidissement des composants électroniques en systèmes embarqués. L’étude bibliographique a permis de sélectionner le refroidissement par spray comme technique prometteuse pour dissiper des flux de chaleur au-delà de 100 W/cm2. Une étude hydraulique, utilisant de l’eau et du HFE7100 comme fluides de refroidissement, nous a permis de valider des modèles permettant de déterminer la taille et la vitesse de gouttes provenant d’une sélection de buses de spray. Pour la partie thermique, nous avons conçu une section d’essais (évaporateur) permettant de pulvériser en spray afin d’étudier le refroidissement avec une boucle fermée diphasique.Vu la complexité du système de spray influencé par plusieurs paramètres et phénomènes physiques, nous avons isolé le phénomène d’ébullition nucléée dans une configuration en ébullition nucléée avec un élément chauffant identique à celui employé avec le refroidissement par spray. Pour améliorer les échanges thermiques, 6 surfaces avec différentes structurations (macroscopiques, microscopiques et hybrides) ont été sélectionnées. Les résultats de tests avec ces surfaces ont été comparés avec une surface lisse tant pour le refroidissement par spray que pour le refroidissement en vase.D’une part, avec un refroidissement par spray, les surfaces macrostructurées nous ont permis de dissiper des puissances thermiques de l’ordre de 140 W/cm2 avec d’importants coefficients de transfert thermique. D’autre part, avec un système de refroidissement par immersion, une des surfaces hybrides a montré être la plus performante.Les résultats reportés dans cette thèse ont permis d’approfondir la compréhension des mécanismes de transfert de chaleur en refroidissement par spray. De même, ils ouvrent la voie à l’étude des améliorations et optimisations du système permettant de l’employer en systèmes embarqués. / This dissertation concerns the study of two-phase flow cooling of electronic components in embedded systems. From a literature review, Spray Cooling was selected as a promising technique for dissipating heat fluxes above 100 W/cm2. A hydraulic study, using water and HFE7100 as coolants, has validate models for determining the size and speed of drops from a selection of spray nozzles. Regarding the thermal study, we have designed a test section (evaporator) to study cooling in a two-phase closed loop system.Given the complexity of Spray Cooling systems, which are influenced by several parameters and involve several physical phenomena, the nucleate boiling phenomenon has been isolated in a Pool Boling system with an identical heating element as Spray Cooling experiment. To improve heat exchange, 6 surfaces with different structures (macroscopic, microscopic and hybrid) were selected. The boiling test results with these surfaces have been compared with a smooth surface for both Spray Cooling and Pool Boiling.On one hand, in Spray Cooling tests, the macrostructured surfaces dissipated heat flux up to 140 W/cm2 with significant heat transfer coefficients. On the other hand, in the Pool Boling system, one of the hybrid surfaces has shown to be the most efficient.The results reported in this dissertation contributes on the understanding of the boiling mechanisms of heat transfer in Spray Cooling. Likewise, they open the way to the study of improvements and optimizations of the system for its use in embedded systems.

A stacked microchannel heat sink was developed to provide efficient cooling for microelectronics devices at a relatively low pressure drop while maintaining chip temperature uniformity. Microfabrication techniques were employed to fabricate the stacked microchannel structure, and experiments were conducted to study its thermal performance. A total thermal resistance of less than 0.1 K/W was demonstrated for both counter flow and parallel flow configurations. The effects of flow direction and interlayer flow rate ratio were investigated. It was found that for the low flow rate range the parallel flow arrangement results in a better overall thermal performance than the counter flow arrangement; whereas, for the large flow rate range, the total thermal resistances for both the counter flow and parallel flow configurations are indistinguishable. On the other hand, the counter flow arrangement provides better temperature uniformity for the entire flow rate range tested. The effects of localized heating on the overall thermal performance were examined by selectively applying electrical power to the heaters. Numerical simulations were conducted to study the conjugate heat transfer inside the stacked microchannels. Negative heat flux conditions were found near the outlets of the microchannels for the counter flow arrangement. This is particularly evident for small flow rates. The numerical results clearly explain why the total thermal resistance for counter flow arrangement is larger than that for the parallel flow at low flow rates. In addition, laminar flow inside the microchannels were characterized using Micro-PIV techniques. Microchannels of different width were fabricated in silicon, the smallest channel measuring 34 mm in width. Measurements were conducted at various channel depths. Measured velocity profiles at these depths were found to be in reasonable agreement with laminar flow theory. Micro-PIV measurement found that the maximum velocity is shifted significantly towards the top of the microchannels due to the sidewall slope, a common issue faced with DRIE etching. Numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the effects of the sidewall slope on the flow and heat transfer. The results show that the effects of large sidewall slope on heat transfer are significant; whereas, the effects on pressure drop are not as pronounced.

A study of heat transfer and pressure drop in zero ozone-depletion-potential (ODP) ‎refrigerant blends in small diameter tubes was conducted. The azeotropic refrigerant ‎blend R410A (equal parts of R32 and R125 by mass) has zero ODP and has properties ‎similar to R22, and is therefore of interest for vapor compression cycles in high-‎temperature-lift space-conditioning and water heating applications. Smaller tubes lead to ‎higher heat transfer coefficients and are better suited for high operating pressures.‎ Heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops for R410A were determined experimentally ‎during condensation across the entire vapor-liquid dome at 0.8, 0.9xPcritical and gas ‎cooling at 1.0, 1.1, 1.2xPcritical in three different round tubes (D = 3.05, 1.52, 0.76 mm) ‎over a mass flux range of 200 < G < 800 kg/m2-s. A thermal amplification technique was ‎used to accurately determine the heat duty for condensation in small quality increments ‎or supercritical cooling across small temperature changes while ensuring low ‎uncertainties in the refrigerant heat transfer coefficients. ‎ The data from this study were used in conjunction with data obtained under similar ‎operating conditions for refrigerants R404A and R410A in tubes of diameter 6.22 and ‎‎9.40 mm to develop models to predict heat transfer and pressure drop in tubes with ‎diameters ranging from 0.76 to 9.40 mm during condensation. Similarly, in the ‎supercritical states, heat transfer and pressure drop models were developed to account for ‎the sharp variations in the thermophysical properties near the critical point.‎ The physical understanding and models resulting from this investigation provide the ‎information necessary for designing and optimizing new components that utilize R410A ‎for air-conditioning and heat pumping applications.‎

To effectively design systems of microchannels it is necessary for scientists and engineers to understand thermal transport characteristics of microchannels. To experimentally determine the convective heat transfer coefficient of microchannels it is necessary to measure both the bulk and surface temperature fields. This investigation aims to develop a technique, named Total Internal Reflection Fluorescent Micro-Thermometry (TIR-FMT), to measure the temperature of water within several hundred nanometers of a wall--effectively, the surface temperature of the wall. In TIR-FMT, an evanescent-wave is generated in the water near the wall. The intensity of this evanescent-wave decays exponentially with distance from the wall. A fluorophore if illuminated by the evanescent-wave can absorb a photon. Excited fluorophores subsequently emit red-shifted photons, which are called fluorescence. The probability of a fluorescent emission is temperature-dependent. Therefore, by monitoring the intensity of the fluorescence a correlation can be made to the temperature of the region of illumination. Using the TIR-FMT technique the temperature dependence of the fluorescence intensity from buffered fluorescein (pH=9.2) was determined to be 1.35%/C. TIR-FMT can be used to measure the temperature of a fluorophore solution within 600 nm of a wall across a temperature range of 12.5-55C. The average uncertainties (95% confidence) of the temperature measured was determined to be 2.3C and 1.5C for a single 1.5x1.5 and #956;m pixel and the entire 715x950 and #956;m viewfield. By spatial averaging, average uncertainties of 2.0C and 1.8C were attained with spatial resolutions of 16x16 and 100x100 and #956;m, respectively.

Doubling transistor count for every two years in a computer chip, transmitter and receiver (T/R) module of a phased-array antenna that demands higher power with smaller dimensions are all results of miniaturization in electronics packaging. These technologies nowadays depend on improvement of reliable high performance heat sink to perform in narrower volumes. Employing microchannels or open cell metal foam heat sinks are two recently developing promising methods of cooling high heat fluxes. Although recent studies especially on microchannels can give a rough estimate on performances of these two methods, since using metal foams as heat sinks is still needed further studies, a direct experimental comparison of heat exchanger performances of these two techniques is still needed especially for thermal design engineers to decide the method of cooling. For this study, microchannels with channel widths of 300 &micro / m, 420 &micro / m, 500 &micro / m and 900 &micro / m were produced. Also, 92% porous 10, 20 and 40 ppi 6101-T6 open cell aluminum metal foams with compression factors 1,2, and 3 that have the same finned volume of microchannels with exactly same dimensions were used to manufacture heat sinks with method of vacuum brazing. They all have tested under same conditions with volumetric flow rate ranging from 0,167 l/min to 1,33 l/min and 60 W of heat power. Channel height was 4 mm for all heat sinks and distilled water used as cooling fluid. After experiments, pressure drops and thermal resistances were compared with tabulated and graphical forms. Also, the use of metal foam and microchannel heat sinks were highlighted with their advantages and disadvantages for future projects.

No description available.

A presente dissertação trata de um estudo teórico-experimental sobre a perda de pressão em canais de diâmetro reduzido durante escoamento bifásico de refrigerantes halogenados. Trocadores de calor baseados na ebulição convectiva, em condições de micro-escala são amplamente estudados devido à intensificação da troca de calor proporcionada e a possibilidade de compactação de sistemas de resfriamento. Proporcionam também a redução do inventário de refrigerante e do material utilizado no processo de fabricação do trocador. Porém, o incremento da transferência de calor é acompanhada pelo aumento da perda de pressão, parâmetro também fundamental para o desempenho do sistema. Para o projeto satisfatório e otimizado destes dispositivos são necessários métodos de previsão de transferência de calor e perda de pressão. Entretanto, no caso de canais de diâmetro reduzido, tais ferramentas não encontram-se disponíveis e trocadores de calor baseados em escoamentos bifásicos no interior de canais de diâmetro reduzido vêm sendo desenvolvidos heuristicamente. Desta forma, inicialmente neste estudo, realizou-se uma revisão crítica da literatura envolvendo critérios de transição entre padrões de escoamento, fração de vazio superficial, perda de pressão no interior de canais com diâmetro reduzido durante escoamento bifásico e os principais métodos de estimativa da perda de pressão para macro e micro-escala. Resultados experimentais para perda de pressão levantados neste estudo em condições adiabáticas para os fluidos R245fa e R134a e tubo com 1,1 mm de diâmetro interno foram descritos e comparados aos métodos preditivos encontrados na literatura. Finalmente um novo método da previsão da perda de pressão foi proposto baseado na correlação de Müller-Steinhagen e Heck (1986), ajustando os valores do coeficiente e do expoente com base nos resultados experimentais levantados. / A theorical and experimental study on two-phase pressure drop inside micro-scale channels has been developed. Recently, the study of flow boiling in micro-scale channel have received special attention from academia and industry due to several advantages that they offer such as minimization of fluid inventory, high degree of compactness of the heat exchangers, better performance and the capacity of dissipate extremely high heat fluxes. The significant heat transfer coefficient enhancement provided by micro-scale channels comes together with a huge pressure drop penalty that impacts the efficiency of the overall cooling system. So, accurate predictive methods to evaluate the pressure drop are necessary for the appropriate design of the system and for its optimization. In the present study, firstly, a critical review on studies from literature was performed that covers criteria of transition between micro- and macro-scale flow boiling, void fraction, frictional pressure drop on micro-scale channels and the leading frictional pressure drop predictive methods. Experimental pressure drop results were acquired under adiabatic conditions for R245fa and R134a fluids and internal diameter tube of 1.1 mm. Then, the leading pressure drop predictive methods were compared against the present database. Also a new correlation based on Muller-Steinhagen e Heck (1986) method was proposed in this work by adjusting new empirical constants based on the present database together with previous results obtained by Tibiriçá et al. (2011) for a 2.3 mm ID tube.

A presente pesquisa envolve um estudo teórico-experimental da transferência de calor e da perda de carga na condensação e no escoamento monofásico de fluidos refrigerantes halogenados no interior de lâminas com micro canais. Os ensaios consideram o fluido refrigerante puro R-134-a e a mistura quase azeotrópica R-410A. As lâminas estudadas envolvem micro canais de seção quadrada de Dh = 1,214 mm e de seção circular de Dh = 1,494 mm. Os ensaios de líquido subresfriado compreendem velocidades mássicas de 390 a 1360 Kg/sm2 para um temperatura de saturação de 40ºC e subresfriamento de 10ºC. Por sua parte, os ensaios foram realizados considerando um fluxo de calor constante de 5 kW/m2, títulos de vapor de 0,1 a 0,9, velocidades mássicas de 410 a 1135 kg/sm2, temperaturas de saturação de 40 a 50ºC e misturas óleo-refrigerante com concentrações de óleo em massa de 0,25 e 0,45%. Para cada condição de ensaio foram avaliados o coeficiente de transferência de calor e a queda de pressão por atrito na lâmina ensaiada. Os resultados para escoamento monofásico apresentaram consistência com relação às correlações típicas aplicáveis a transferência de calor e perda de carga para regime turbulento em tubos convencionais, apresentando, em média, valores de 12% superiores. Na maioria das condições de ensaios de condensação, segundo mapas de escoamento disponíveis na literatura, foi identificado o domínio do padrão estreitamento anular. Este comportamento foi aferido pelos resultados experimentais de perda de carga mostrando dependência quase exclusiva do parâmetro de Martinelli, e o mecanismo conectivo como principal mecanismo de transferência de calor, característico no padrão anular. Os resultados de condensação foram correlacionados a partir de abordagens empíricas em função do parâmetro de Martinelli e o conceito de velocidade mássica equivalente. Assim como, a partir de uma abordagem semi-empírica considerando um modelo anular que permite avaliar os mecanismos principais de transferência de calor e quantidade de movimento, avaliando a espessura do filme de líquido na parede do canal. Finalmente, os resultados experimentais e os obtidos a partir das correlações desenvolvidas são comparados com estudos disponíveis na literatura relativos a lâminas com micro canais. / This project involves a theoretical-experimental study of heat transfer and pressure drop in condensation and single phase flow of halogen refrigerants in microchannel tubes. The tests include the pure refrigerant R-134a and quasi azeotropic mixture R-410A. The microchannel tubes tested include one with square ports of Dh = 1,214 mm and other with circular port of Dh = 1,494 mm. The subcooled liquid tests considered the mass velocities of 390 to 1360 kg/sm2, the saturation temperature of 40ºC and subcooled of 10ºC. The condensing tests considered a constant heat flux of 5 kW/m2, vapor quality of 0,15 to 0,9, mass velocities of 410 to 1135 kg/sm2, saturation temperature of 40 to 50ºC and oil-refrigerant mixtures with oil mass concentrations of 0,25 and 0,45%. For each test condition was evaluated the coefficient of heat transfer and frictional pressure drop in the microchannel tube. The single phase results agree with typical correlations used in conventional tubes to evaluate the heat transfer and pressure drop in turbulent flow, even though the most of experimental date are 12% higher. The most of flow patterns in condensation were identified as annular using the flow patterns maps available on literature. This behavior was verified through pressure drop results, which show exclusive dependence on Martinelli Parameter. The heat transfer results show that the main heat transfer mechanism was convective, typical in annular flow. The results of condensation were correlated from empirical approachs using the Martinelli parameter and the equivalent mass velocity concept. And, also a semi-empirical approach modeling the annular flow to evaluate the mechanism of heat transfer through the liquid film around the wall of the tube. Finally, the experimental results and the results obtained through the models were compared with correlations referred to microchannels available on the literature.

Water droplets tend to bead up on rough or textured hydrophobic surfaces by trapping air on the crevices underneath resulting in “Cassie” state of wetting. When a textured hydrophobic surface is immersed in water, the resulting underwater “Cassie” state can lead to significant drag reduction. The entrapped air pockets act as shear free regions and the composite interface consisting of alternate no slip and no shear regions thus formed can deliver substantial drag reduction during flow. The magnitude of drag reduction depends not only on the fractional coverage of air on the surface, but also on the size of the air pockets, with larger sized air pockets facilitating larger drag reduction. It is a common observance that Lotus leaf when kept immersed in water for a few minutes loses its water repellency due to the loss of entrapped air on the surface. Underwater Cassie state on textured hydrophobic surfaces is also not sustainable because of the depletion of air pockets caused by the diffusion of trapped air into water. This causes the drag reduction to diminish with time. Rate of diffusion of air across the water–air interface depends on the concentration gradient of air across the interface. Under flow conditions, removal of entrapped air is further enhanced by convection, leading to more rapid shrinkage of the air pockets. In order to sustain the Cassie state, it is thus necessary to continuously supply air to these air pockets. In this work, we explore the possibility of supplying air to the cavities on the textured surface inside a microchannel by controlling the solubility of air in water close to the surface. The solubility is varied by i) Controlling the absolute pressure inside the channel and ii) Localized heating of the surface To trap uniform air pockets, a textured surface containing a regular array of blind holes is used. The textured surface is generated by photo etching of brass and is rendered hydrophobic through a self-assembled monolayer. The sustainability of the underwater Cassie state of wetting on the surface is studied at various flow conditions. The air trapped on the textured surface is visualized using total internal reflection based technique, with the pressure drop (or drag) being simultaneously measured. Water which is initially saturated with air at atmospheric conditions, when subjected to sub-atmospheric pressures within the channel becomes supersaturated causing the air bubbles to grow in size. Further growth causes the bubbles to merge and eventually detach from the surface. The growth and subsequent merging of the air bubbles leads to a substantial increase in the pressure drop because as the air pockets grow in size, they project into the flow and start obstructing the flow. On the other hand, a pressure above the atmospheric pressure within the channel makes the water undersaturated with air, leading to gradual shrinkage and eventual disappearance of air bubbles. In this case, the air bubbles do cause reduction in the pressure drop with the minimum pressure drop (or maximum drag reduction) occurring when the bubbles are flush with the surface. The rate of growth or decay of air bubbles is found to be significantly dependent on the absolute pressure in the channel. Hence by carefully controlling the absolute pressure, the Cassie state of wetting can be sustained for extended periods of time. A drag reduction of up to 15% was achieved and sustained for a period of over 5 hours. Temperature of water also influences the solubility of air in water with higher temperatures resulting in reduced solubility. Thus locally heating the textured hydrophobic surface causes the air bubbles to grow, with the rate of growth being dependent on the heat input. The effect of trapped air bubbles on thermal transport is also determined by measuring the heat transfer rate through the surface in the presence and absence of trapped air bubbles. Even though the trapped air bubbles do cause a reduction in the heat transfer coefficient by about 10%, a large pressure drop reduction of up to 15% obtained during the experiments helps in circumventing this disadvantage. Hence for the same pressure drop across the channel, the textured hydrophobic surface helps to augment the heat transfer rate. The experiments show that, by varying the solubility of air in water either by controlling the pressure or by local heating, underwater Cassie state of wetting can be sustained on textured hydrophobic surfaces, thus delivering up to 15% drag reduction in both cases for extended periods of time. The results obtained hold important implications towards achieving sustained drag reduction in microfluidic applications.