Thesis (MA.)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigates the image of Yahweh as warrior in a selection of Biblical-Hebrew psalms against the background of similar images in the broader Ancient Near East. In the psalms this image is closely linked with the emotions and experience of the psalmist. In the situation of conflict he calls on Yahweh to intervene and to destroy the enemy. It is in such circumstances that this image of Yahweh gives the necessary comfort. In order to investigate the image of Yahweh as warrior in the psalms, this study uses the Comparative Method. This method is based on the assumption that cultures and societies share certain ideas and characteristics. The specific approach within the Comparative Method is called the typological comparative approach. This approach focuses on the comparison of phenomena in cultures that are historically and geographically far removed from each other. This comparison is based on the assumption that certain cultural characteristics are universally shared. In this investigation the following psalms are analysed: 3, 21, 46, 68, 76, 83, 140, 144. The selection was made on the basis of the different literary genres within the psalms. As a background to this investigation a summary of warrior terminology and ideas in the rest of the Ancient Near East is presented. Afterwards the warrior image in the selected psalms is investigated. The investigation proceeded as follows: Chapter 1 is devoted to the research history with regard to the image of Yahweh as warrior in the Hebrew Bible; in Chapter 2 the metaphor as literary device is discussed; and in Chapter 3 the focus is on the institution of war in the Ancient Near East and the role of warriors in this regard. From Chapters 4 to 11 the warrior metaphors in the selected psalms are analysed. With each of the analysed psalms the following method is used: (1) a translation and text-critical notes; (2) a discussion of the literary genre; (3) an analysis of the poetic elements; and (4) an analysis of the warrior images. The psalmist's enemies are also Yahweh's enemies. In the psalms where he is portrayed as warrior, three characters always come to the fore, namely Yahweh, the psalmist and the enemy. While the enemy is portrayed in terms of typical hostile images, the relationship between Yahweh and the psalmist is defensive, and offensive between Yahweh and the enemy. In this study it is , also shown that when Yahweh intervenes, he saves and restores the honour of the psalmist. Yahweh is also praised for his acts of salvation in the past. This forms the basis for the psalmist call to Yahweh to intervene in his situation. He defeats the enemy by making use of different weapons. The psalmist's enemies are also Yahweh's enemies. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die voorstelling van Jahwe as kryger in 'n seleksie Bybels-Hebreeuse psalms teen die agtergrond van soortgelyke voorstellings in die breër Ou Nabye Oosterse konteks. In die psalms hang hierdie voorstelling ten nouste saam met die emosies en ervarings van die digter. Die vyand stig gedurig stryd aan en soek die digter se ondergang. In sy situasie van stryd en aanvegting roep hy tot Jahwe om in te gryp en die vyand te verslaan. Dit is dan juis hierdie voorstelling van Jahwe wat in dié omstandighede 'n groot gerusstelling is. In hierdie studie word daar van die Vergelykende Metode gebruik gemaak. Hierdie metode is gebaseer op die aanname dat kulture en gemeenskappe sekere opvattings en idees met mekaar deel. Die spesifieke benadering wat binne die Vergelykende Metode gebruik word, word die Tipologies-Vergelykende benadering genoem. In hierdie benadering handel dit oor die vergelyking van verskynsels in kulture wat histories en geografies van mekaar verwyderd is. Hierdie benadering opereer met die aanname dat sekere kulturele opvattings universeel gedeel word. Die volgende psalms word in die ondersoek ontleed: 3, 21,46,68, 76, 83, 140, 144. Die seleksie is gedoen op grond van die belangrikste literêre genres in die psalms. As agtergrond tot die ondersoek, word 'n kort oorsig gebied van krygerterminologie en opvattings in die res van die Ou Nabye Ooste. Daarna is die krygerbeeld in die geselekteerde psalms ondersoek. Die ondersoek het soos volg verloop: in Hoofstuk 1 is daar aandag gegee aan die navorsingsgeskiedenis met betrekking tot die voorstelling van Jahwe as kryger in die Hebreeuse Bybel, in Hoofstuk 2 is die literêre verskynsel van die metafoor behandel en in Hoofstuk 3 is daar gefokus op die Ou Nabye Oosterse instelling van oorlog en die plek van krygers in die verband. Vanaf Hoofstuk 4-11 is die krygermetafore in die geselekteerde psalms geanaliseer. By elk van die geanaliseerde psalms word die volgende metode gevolg: (1) 'n vertaling en tekskritiese aantekeninge; (2) 'n bespreking van die literêre genre; (3) 'n analise van die styl-elemente; en (4) 'n analise van die krygermetafore. In die psalms waar Jahwe as kryger voorgestel word, tree daar altyd drie hoofkarakters na vore, naamlik die digter, die vyand en Jahwe. Die vyand word geteken in terme van tipiese "vyandsbeelde", terwyl Jahwe defensief teenoor die bidder optree en offensief teenoor die teëstanders. In hierdie studie word ook aangedui dat wanneer Jahwe ingryp, bewerk Hy redding en herstel Hy ook die digter se eer. Jahwe word geloof vir sy reddingsdade in die verlede. Dit vorm die basis vir die digter se hulpgeroep tot Jahwe om in te gryp in sy situasie. Hy verslaan die vyand deur van verskillende wapens gebruik te maak. Die digter se vyande word ook as Jahwe se vyand gesien.

This dissertation investigates what the early modern donation system in Sweden reveals about the Crown’s expectations of the social group that served the state, and what these individuals expected from the Crown. The author shows how the Crown used donations of land rents to remunerate and reward individuals in its service. In 1680 the donation system was abolished and the Crown reclaimed everything that had been alienated. It was not until 1723 that the proprietors could address a specially appointed parliamentary commission (which ended in 1748) and challenge the Crown’s repossession. The deeds of donation and ratification, most issued during the period 1604 to 1680, as well as petitions submitted to the commission constitute the sources used in the investigation. A petition from the recipient usually preceded remunerations and the deeds drawn up by the Crown often refer to these letters. Petitioners accordingly referred to arguments used by the administration in Stockholm. This makes it possible, by direct and indirect methods, to study how both parties sought to change and influence the imagined compact between Crown and families in its service. The negotiation between the parties, studied over such a lengthy period, helps identify tendencies in the way the relation between state and its servants was changing. The thesis shows that there was a clear gender aspect to the process through which state formation happened. Even though most recipients were male, the deeds included his wife and children. Service and fidelity to the Crown was expected also from the descendants of the recipient. Accordingly, the Crown had both liabilities and duties to fulfil to the recipients family. We could say that in the eye of the Crown its servants were a family. The author also argues that the Crown used the donations to create and favour an informal fifth estate and how this policy influenced the shared ideas in society on merits versus ancestry. In the end of the period, however, the imagined compact was changing. The emerging state came with new claims to authority and the need to separate the Crown from its subjects at various levels (legal, political). As the compact became less personal family members were no longer included and women could no longer negotiate from their position within the family.

The duality of the United States’ relationship with international criminal law and human rights atrocities is a fascinating theme that weaves through all of American history, but most distinctly demonstrates the contradictory nature of American foreign policy in the latter half of the 20th century. America is both protector of human rights and perpetrator of human rights atrocities, global police force and aggressor. The Cold War exacerbated the tensions caused by American military dominance. The international political and physical power of the American military allowed the United States to do as it pleased in the 20th century with few consequences, but that power also brought watchfulness from the global community and an expectation that the United States would intervene when rogue states or leaders committed crimes against humanity. The international legal community has expected the United States to act and illegally intervene in some situations, but to pursue policy changes peacefully through diplomatic channels on other occasions.

La présente thèse vise à apporter des éclaircissements sur la réapparition du souci défensif, sa matérialisation et son évolution en Anatolie occidentale et centrale au début du premier millénaire av. J.-C. (Xe-VIe s.). Le territoire soumis à l’examen comprend la Phrygie, la boucle de l’Halys, la Carie, la Lydie, l’Ionie, l’Eolide et la Troade. Cette étude s’intéresse en premier lieu aux différentes méthodes de fortification utilisées au cours de cette période. Par l’examen des principales caractéristiques architecturales des murs de défense (techniques de construction, dispositifs défensifs), cette étude cherche à déterminer de quelle manière ces nouvelles constructions s’inscrivent dans la tradition architecturale anatolienne et dans quelle mesure leurs concepteurs contribuèrent à l’évolution de celle-ci en adoptant et en transformant les méthodes de fortification qui en sont issues. La construction d’un rempart, parce qu’elle impliquait de nombreux acteurs, était un fait de société majeur. Par leur conception, les techniques utilisées pour leur construction, leur emprise dans le paysage, les murailles sont des monuments chargés de symboles et des témoins privilégiés de l’histoire des sociétés qui les ont construites et perfectionnées. Au-delà des considérations archéologiques, cette étude s’attache donc aussi à replacer la construction de fortifications dans le contexte militaire mouvementé de l’Anatolie préclassique et tente également d’évaluer l’impact d’un tel projet de construction dans l’histoire politique et sociale des populations anatoliennes de l’âge du fer. / This thesis aims to shed light on the reappearance of defensive concern, its materialization and its evolution in Western and Central Anatolia in the Early First Millennium BC. (10th-6th c.). The area under consideration includes Phrygia, the Halys bend, Caria, Lydia, Ionia, Aeolis and the Troad. This study focuses primarily on the various fortification methods used during this period. By examining the main architectural features of defensive walls (building techniques, defensive components), this study seeks to determine how these new constructions inherited from the Anatolian architectural tradition and how their designers contributed to make it evolve by adopting and transforming some of its principles. The construction of a wall, because it involved many actors, was also major social phenomenon. Iron Age fortifications sometimes bear witness to the history of the various populations who built and perfected them. Hence, beyond archaeological considerations, this study also aims to place the construction of fortifications in the military context of the tumultuous pre-classical Anatolia. It also attempts to evaluate the impact of such a construction project on the sociopolitical history of Anatolian Iron Age populations: Greeks, Lydians, Phrygians and Carians.

Im Russischen Zarenreich waren Drohungen ein zentrales Instrument der Machtausübung. Die Androhung von Gewalt erlaubte es dem Staat, seine Untertanen in Schach zu halten, ohne Gewalt tatsächlich anwenden zu müssen. Als während der Gewaltexzesse der Revolution von 1905 die Drohkulisse des Zarenreiches in sich zusammenfiel, geriet das System in eine elementare Krise. In dieser Arbeit wird anhand einer Fallstudie untersucht, wie die imperiale russische Armee als zentraler politischer Akteur neue Praktiken entwickelte, die das Überleben des Zarenreichs sicherten. In Zusammenarbeit von Militäreinheiten vor Ort und dem Ministerium in St. Petersburg wurden Regelungen ausgearbeitet, mit denen die symbolische Androhung von Gewalt durch den tatsächlichen, realisierten Gewaltakt ersetzt werden sollte. Hierzu wollten die Militärs zunächst, dass die Differenz zwischen Soldaten und Zivilisten wieder sichtbar gemacht werden sollte. Soldaten sollten sich nur noch in Extremsituationen auf den Strassen blicken lassen um dann „schnell und entschieden“, wie eine der zentralen Forderungen jener Zeit lauerte, zur Waffe zu greifen. Diese Taktiken hatten kurzfristig Erfolg. Langfristig führten sie jedoch zur Erosion des russischen Zarenreichs: Die Revolution von 1905 hatte die Grenzen der Drohpotentiale des Zaren aufgezeigt. / In Tsarist Russia, the threat was an important instrument of rule. Threats of violence enabled the state to subdue its subjects without the need to resort to the actual use of violence. But when the Tsar’s threats lost their effectiveness during the excessive violence of the revolution of 1905, Russia endured a fundamental crisis. My work uses Warsaw as a case study to examine how the Imperial Russian Army secured the survival of Tsarist Russia by developing new practices of threat. Units on the ground and the military bureaucracy in St. Petersburg developed new regulations that aimed at replacing the symbolic threat of violence with its actual and finely regulated application. As a precondition for this, the military command wanted to reestablish the symbolic boundaries between soldiers and civilians. Soldiers were allowed to leave their barracks only in situations when this was absolutely necessary. However, they then had to use violence “quickly and decisively,” as a popular phrase described it. In the short term, these tactics proved successful. In the longer run, however, they led to the erosion of the Tsarist regime during its next fundamental moment of crisis. The revolution of 1905 had shown to the people the limitations of the Tsar’s threat potential.

Arkansas occupied a key position in the Confederate Trans-Mississippi Department. It offered a gateway for Confederate troops to move north and secure Missouri for the Confederacy, or for Union troops to move south towards Texas and Louisiana. During the war, Union and Confederate armies moved back and forth across the state engaging in numerous encounters. This paper is a year by year study of those encounters and engagements occurring in Arkansas between 1861 and 1865. Emphasis is necessarily placed on the significant campaigns and engagements. Actions which occurred in adjacent states but which militarily affected Arkansas are also discussed. The majority of the material was compiled from the Official Records.

Because it signified the violent transition from the Plantagenet to Tudor dynasty, the death of King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth’s Field was a monumental event. After five centuries, his skeleton was rediscovered by an archaeological team at a site, formerly the location of the Greyfriars Priory Church. The presentation uses the forensic evidence to examine the extent to which the perceived image of Richard III is the result of Tudor propaganda.

The American GI’s experience in hospital during World War II is absent from official military histories, most scholarly works, and even many oral history collections. Utilizing the papers of WWII infantryman, Leon Standifer, this thesis offers the reader a rare glimpse of WWII military hospital life and chronicles one soldier’s journey from willing obedience to subversive action. This thesis compares the stated goals and procedures of the US Army medical department to the experience of Leon Standifer, an infantryman who served in northern France during the last year of the war and the American occupation of Bavaria, whose service was marked by several periods of protracted hospitalization. Over the course of five hospitalizations, during which Standifer was treated for bullet wounds, trench foot, and pneumonia, he consistently wrote letters to his family describing his experience. A careful reading of Standifer’s wartime correspondence in conjunction with his published and unpublished writings, secondary source material, and military records, suggest that while isolated in the hospital, after killing and experiencing the death of his comrades, Standifer lost his desire to fight. He began to make calculated decisions based on his knowledge of the military medical system in an attempt to ensure his survival and control the remainder of his military service.

This thesis deals with China's policy making toward both the Soviet Union and the United States in late 1949 and early 1950 and how they made the decision to enter the conflict, by making use of recently declassified Chinese sources and available American sources.

This thesis combines a traditional narrative history of a Confederate artillery battery with a socio-economic study of its members. A database was constructed using the Compiled Service Records, 1860 census, and county tax rolls. The information revealed similarities between the unit's members and their home area. Captain James M. Daniel organized the battery in Paris, Texas and it entered Confederate service in January 1862. The battery served in Walker's Texas Division. It was part of a reserve force at the Battle of Milliken's Bend and was involved in the battles of Bayou Bourbeau, Mansfield, and Pleasant Hill. The battery also shelled Union ships on the Mississippi River. Daniel's Battery officially surrendered at Natchitoches, Louisiana, in May 1865.