Dysfunction of the central noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems is the primary neurobiological characteristic of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Importantly, neuronal loss in the locus coeruleus (LC) that occurs in early stages of PD may accelerate progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons. Therefore, restoring the activity and function of the deficient noradrenergic system may be an important therapeutic strategy for early PD. In the present study, the lentiviral constructions of transcription factors Phox2a/2b, Hand2 and Gata3, either alone or in combination, were microinjected into the LC region of the PD model VMAT2 Lo mice at 12 and 18 month age. Biochemical analysis showed that microinjection of lentiviral expression cassettes into the LC significantly increased mRNA levels of Phox2a, and Phox2b, which were accompanied by parallel increases of mRNA and proteins of dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the LC. Furthermore, there was considerable enhancement of DBH protein levels in the frontal cortex and hippocampus, as well as enhanced TH protein levels in the striatum and substantia nigra. Moreover, these manipulations profoundly increased norepinephrine and dopamine concentrations in the striatum, which was followed by a remarkable improvement of the spatial memory and locomotor behavior. These results reveal that over-expression of these transcription factors in the LC improves noradrenergic and dopaminergic activities and functions in this rodent model of PD. It provides the necessary groundwork for the development of gene therapies of PD, and expands our understanding of the link between the LC-norepinephrine and dopamine systems during the progression of PD.

A computerized virtual version of the Morris water maze (vMWM) was used to assess human gender differences in spatial working memory. In Experiment 1, the release point and platform location was changed on every other trial for 20 trials. Men had significantly reduced acquisition latencies and more accurate heading errors on the first daily trial compared to women. In Experiment 2, the release point and platform location was changed every fourth trial for 20 trials. Men had significantly shorter acquisition latencies and path lengths than women. Experiment 3 was identical to Experiment 2, except that environmental cues were changed throughout testing. Men had significantly shorter acquisition latencies and path lengths than did the women. These studies are the first to demonstrate significant gender differences in a spatial working memory version of the vMWM.

Cognitive impairments are an increasing health problem worldwide. In the developed countries, the average life expectancy has dramatically increased over the last decades, and with an elderly population more cases of cognitive impairments appear. Age, genetics, and different medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus, and substance use disorders may all contribute to declined cognitive ability. Physiological functions also decrease with increasing age, as does the activity of the growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) axis. Interestingly, both GH and IGF-1 are recognized for their neuroprotective effects and cognitive enhancement. The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate the impact of the somatotrophic axis (i.e. GH/IGF-1 axis) in rodents with cognitive deficiencies induced by diabetes or long-term drug exposure. For the first time cognitive impairments were characterized in diabetic mice using a spatial learning and memory task called the Barnes maze (BM). In diabetic mice, impaired learning in the BM was associated with decreased expression of the GH receptor (GHR) in the frontal cortex, a region important for e.g. working memory. Treatment with GH reversed certain cognitive impairments seen in diabetic animals. In rats treated with gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), a significant decrease of Igf1 mRNA expression in the frontal cortex was observed. This observation may explain the impaired cognitive function previously seen following GHB administration. Furthermore, rats exposed to chronic morphine delivered in mini-osmotic pumps displayed memory impairments in the Morris water maze (MWM), an effect that seems to be associated with the composition of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor complex in the frontal cortex. In conclusion, the result strengthens the evidence for GH being a cognitive enhancer. Moreover, the result within this thesis identifies the frontal cortex as an important brain region, where gene expression related to the somatotrophic system is affected in rodents with cognitive impairments. The thesis especially emphasizes the importance of the local somatotrophic system in the brain with regard to cognitive function.

A anóxia neonatal decorre da redução de oxigênio no feto ou no recém-nascido e provoca morte e morbidade principalmente nos prematuros. Neste projeto avaliamos se o exercício físico espontâneo em ratas gestantes atenua os problemas no desenvolvimento e na cognição provocados pela anóxia neonatal nos filhotes. Para tanto, avaliamos o desenvolvimento somático e sensorimotor dos filhotes até o desmame e na idade adulta avaliamos a sua memória espacial. Também analisamos a densidade de neurônios e a expressão relativa de sinapsina I no hipocampo de animais jovens e adultos. O exercício materno espontâneo foi capaz de reverter o atraso provocado pela anóxia neonatal no aparecimento de características físicas e reflexos. Em animais jovens, ele também diminuiu a redução, pela anóxia, da densidade neuronal no giro dentado e da expressão relativa de sinapsina I. Os efeitos do exercício materno e da anóxia neonatal aparentemente não persistiram até a vida adulta. Assim, o exercício materno espontâneo atenua os efeitos da anóxia neonatal em jovens. / Neonatal anoxia follows from oxygen reduction in fetus or newborn and causes death and morbidity mainly in premature children. We evaluated if spontaneous maternal exercise in pregnant rats attenuates problems in the development and in the cognition caused by neonatal anoxia in pups. Thereunto, we evaluated the somatic and sensory-motor development of pups until weaning and, at adult age, we evaluated their spatial memory. We also analysed the neuron density and the relative expression of synapsin I in the hippocampus of young and adult animals. The spontaneous maternal exercise was able to reverse the delay caused by neonatal anoxia in the development of physical traits and reflexes. In young animals, maternal exercise also decrease the reduction, by anoxia, of neuronal density in the dentate gyrus and of relative expression. of synapsin I. Maternal exercise and neonatal anoxia effects apparently did not persist until adulthood. Thus, spontaneous maternal exercise attenuates neonatal anoxia effects in Young rats.

Studies have shown that there is a strong correlation between aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Aging is considered the number one risk factor to develop neuropathologies such as memory loss, senile dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Parkinson's disease. Neurodegenerative diseases tend to start during adulthood, and aggravate over time, making them difficult to prevent and to treat. In the Unites States, demographic studies by U.S. Bureau of the Census have determined that our aging population of >65 years is expected to increase from the present 35 million to 78 million in 2030. This would result, not only to an increase of age-related chronic illness, and mental disability, but to a decrease of quality of life, and an elevation of medical cost. Thus, this dissertation has focused on investigating the molecular mechanisms during the process of aging and its correlation to chronic inflammation and cognitive impairments. The etiology of neurodegenerative diseases is not very well understood, but research has shown that the process of aging is a key factor, which involved oxidative stress, an over reactive microglia, and increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. All these factors are known to decrease cell proliferation, which limit neuroplasticity and they might lead the transition from normal aging to more severe cognitive dysfunction associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Previously, we have shown that natural compounds such as polyphenols from blueberry, and green tea, and amino acids like carnosine are high in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity that decreases the damaging effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS), in the blood, brain, and other tissues of the body. Therefore, we examined the hypothesis that the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-[U+F061] may be a critical factor that modulates classical conditioning behavior, the effects of NT-020 on adult neurogenesis, inflammatory markers of the CNS, and the effect of NT-020 on cognitive function as shown using spatial navigation task. The results show that in aged rats, endogenous production of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α impairs the acquisition of learning and memory consolidation in the delay eyeblink classical conditioning task (EBC). It was shown that this effect can be replicated by infusing young rats with exogenous TNF-α prior to EBC. Using NT-020 as a dietary supplement for one month, it was found that NT-020 ameliorates the age-related impairments typically found in aged rats in the spatial navigation tasks Morris water maze and radial arm water maze. By looking at immunohistochemistry analysis, it was found a decreased number of OX6 MHC II positive cells, increased neurogenesis, and increased number of proliferating cells in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus in the aged rats fed with NT-020 relative with their counterpart aged control. In the CNS, Inflammatory markers were analyzed, and it was found that aged rat fed with NT-020 supplemented diet has decrease levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in compared with aged rats fed with NIH-31 control diet. In conclusion, TNF-α, a pro-inflammatory cytokine has shown to have a modulatory effect during classical conditioning. Moreover, NT-020 may promote a healthy CNS milieu, proliferation of neuronal progenitors, and maintenance of nature neurons in the aged rats and it might exert anti-inflammatory actions which promote a functional stem cell pool in the CNS of aged rats.

The abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) is becoming increasingly common and may result in a range of physiological as well as psychological effects such as altered behavior in terms of increased aggression, cognitive dysfunction and addictive behavior. AAS comprise testosterone and its derivatives, of which nandrolone is one of the more common. Previous studies have shown nandrolone-induced effects in male rats on peptide levels within the Substance P (SP) system and the dynorphinergic system; these effects may be linked to some of the reported behavior alterations. The studies presented in this thesis aimed to investigate the mechanisms underlying these peptide alterations and also to further investigate neuropeptidergic effects attributed to nandrolone administration. The results display significant effects on the enzymatic conversion of SP and Dynorphin A into their bioactive metabolites SP(1-7) and Leu-enkephalin-Arg6, respectively, as a result of nandrolone treatment. More profound investigations on the dynorphinergic system displayed effects on the kappa opioid receptor density in various brain regions. There was also a significant increase in the expression of the gene transcript of prodynorphin in the hippocampus, a brain region associated with cognitive processes. In addition, impaired spatial learning and memory in the Morris water maze task following nandrolone administration was encountered. The results provide further understanding regarding neuropeptidergic mechanisms underlying AAS-induced behavioral effects.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Adolescentes humanos frequentemente associam o fumo do tabaco ao consumo de bebidas alcoólicas. A despeito desta associação, pouco se sabe sobre a neurobiologia básica da coexposição no cérebro adolescente. No presente estudo, avaliamos os efeitos da exposição, que ocorreu do 30 ao 45 dia de vida pós natal (PN30 a PN45), à nicotina e/ou ao etanol durante a adolescência (PN38-45) e da retirada (PN50-57) na memória visuoespacial através do Labirinto Aquático de Morris (LAM: 6 sessões + 1 prova, 3 tentativas/sessão, latência = 2 min), em 4 grupos de camundongos Suíços machos e fêmeas: (1) exposição concomitante à NIC [solução de nicotina free base (50 μg/ml) em sacarina a 2% para beber] e ETOH [solução de etanol (25%, 2 g/kg) injetada i.p. em dias alternados]; (2) exposição à NIC; (3) exposição ao ETOH; (4) veículo (VEH). Uma vez que os resultados comportamentais podem sofrer a interferência de alterações motoras, avaliamos (a) a atividade locomotora no Teste de Campo Aberto (sessão única, 5 min) e (b) a coordenação e o equilíbrio no Teste de Locomoção Forçada sobre Cilindro Giratório (5 tentativas, latência = 2 min). Para os efeitos da exposição à NIC e/ou ao ETOH na eficiência do transporte de aminoácidos excitatórios, avaliamos a captação de [3H] D-aspartato no hipocampo. A expressão do transportador glial GLAST/EAAT1 foi avaliada por Western-blot. Durante a exposição, animais ETOH e NIC+ETOH apresentaram déficits de memória nas sessões de teste e de prova no LAM enquanto, na retirada, os grupos NIC e NIC+ETOH apresentaram prejuízos na retenção. Não houve diferenças significativas entre os grupos de tratamento em nenhum dos parâmetros testados em ambos os testes motores, tanto na exposição quanto na abstinência. Os grupos NIC, ETOH e NIC+ETOH tiveram uma diminuição significativa na captação de [3H] D-aspartato ao final do período de exposição, com uma normalização da atividade dos EAATs na retirada das drogas. O tratamento com NIC e ETOH reduziu ainda a expressão de GLAST/EAAT1 no hipocampo em ambas as idades testadas. O uso de etanol na adolescência causa prejuízos à memória de camundongos, com um efeito negativo mais acentuado quando associado à nicotina. Contudo, a retirada da nicotina apresentou um efeito mandatório nos danos encontrados. Ambas as drogas, isoladamente ou na coexposição, alteram os níveis de atividade e expressão dos EAATs, sugerindo que os resultados bioquímicos estejam implicados nas alterações comportamentais encontradas. / Human adolescents frequently associate tobacco smoke and alcoholic drinks. Despite this association, little is known about the basic neurobiology of co-exposure in the adolescent brain. In the present study, we assessed the effects of nicotine and/or ethanol exposure (postnatal days 30 to 45: PN30-45) during adolescence (PN38-45) and withdrawal (PN50-57) on visuospacial memory through the Morris Water Maze (MWM: 6 sessions + 1 probe, 3 trials/session, latency = 2 min), in four groups of male and female Swiss mice: (1) Concomitant NIC [nicotine free base solution (50g/ml) in 2% saccharin to drink] and ETOH [ethanol solution (25%, 2g/kg) i.p. injected every other day] exposure; (2) NIC exposure; (3) ETOH exposure; (4) Vehicle (VEH). Once behavioral results can be affected by motor disorders, we assessed (a) locomotor activity through the Open field Test (one session, 5 min) and (b) coordination and balance through the ROTAROD Test (5 trials, latency = 2 min). To investigate the effects of NIC and/or ETOH exposure on the efficiency on excitatory amino acid transport, we assessed the [3H] D-aspartate uptake in mice hippocampus. The GLAST/EAAT1, a glial transporter, was assessed by Western-blot technique. During exposure, ETOH and NIC+ETOH animals showed deficits on memory through the session and probe trial in WMW while, during withdrawal, NIC and NIC+ETOH groups showed impairments on retention. There were no significant differences between the experimental groups in any parameters assessed in both motor tests, either during exposure and withdrawal. There was a significant decrease in the [3H] D-aspartate for NIC, ETOH and NIC+ETOH groups in the end of exposure, turning to the normal levels of EAATs activity during withdrawal. The NIC and ETOH treatment decreased the GLAST/EAAT1 expression on hippocampus in all ages tested. Ethanol use leads to memory impairments in adolescent mice, with more preeminent effects when associated to nicotine. However, the nicotine withdrawal showed a mandatory effect on memory impairments. Both drugs, singly or in co-exposure, alter activity and expression of EAATs, which suggests that biochemical results may be associated to the behavioral alterations.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Adolescentes humanos frequentemente associam o fumo do tabaco ao consumo de bebidas alcoólicas. A despeito desta associação, pouco se sabe sobre a neurobiologia básica da coexposição no cérebro adolescente. No presente estudo, avaliamos os efeitos da exposição, que ocorreu do 30 ao 45 dia de vida pós natal (PN30 a PN45), à nicotina e/ou ao etanol durante a adolescência (PN38-45) e da retirada (PN50-57) na memória visuoespacial através do Labirinto Aquático de Morris (LAM: 6 sessões + 1 prova, 3 tentativas/sessão, latência = 2 min), em 4 grupos de camundongos Suíços machos e fêmeas: (1) exposição concomitante à NIC [solução de nicotina free base (50 μg/ml) em sacarina a 2% para beber] e ETOH [solução de etanol (25%, 2 g/kg) injetada i.p. em dias alternados]; (2) exposição à NIC; (3) exposição ao ETOH; (4) veículo (VEH). Uma vez que os resultados comportamentais podem sofrer a interferência de alterações motoras, avaliamos (a) a atividade locomotora no Teste de Campo Aberto (sessão única, 5 min) e (b) a coordenação e o equilíbrio no Teste de Locomoção Forçada sobre Cilindro Giratório (5 tentativas, latência = 2 min). Para os efeitos da exposição à NIC e/ou ao ETOH na eficiência do transporte de aminoácidos excitatórios, avaliamos a captação de [3H] D-aspartato no hipocampo. A expressão do transportador glial GLAST/EAAT1 foi avaliada por Western-blot. Durante a exposição, animais ETOH e NIC+ETOH apresentaram déficits de memória nas sessões de teste e de prova no LAM enquanto, na retirada, os grupos NIC e NIC+ETOH apresentaram prejuízos na retenção. Não houve diferenças significativas entre os grupos de tratamento em nenhum dos parâmetros testados em ambos os testes motores, tanto na exposição quanto na abstinência. Os grupos NIC, ETOH e NIC+ETOH tiveram uma diminuição significativa na captação de [3H] D-aspartato ao final do período de exposição, com uma normalização da atividade dos EAATs na retirada das drogas. O tratamento com NIC e ETOH reduziu ainda a expressão de GLAST/EAAT1 no hipocampo em ambas as idades testadas. O uso de etanol na adolescência causa prejuízos à memória de camundongos, com um efeito negativo mais acentuado quando associado à nicotina. Contudo, a retirada da nicotina apresentou um efeito mandatório nos danos encontrados. Ambas as drogas, isoladamente ou na coexposição, alteram os níveis de atividade e expressão dos EAATs, sugerindo que os resultados bioquímicos estejam implicados nas alterações comportamentais encontradas. / Human adolescents frequently associate tobacco smoke and alcoholic drinks. Despite this association, little is known about the basic neurobiology of co-exposure in the adolescent brain. In the present study, we assessed the effects of nicotine and/or ethanol exposure (postnatal days 30 to 45: PN30-45) during adolescence (PN38-45) and withdrawal (PN50-57) on visuospacial memory through the Morris Water Maze (MWM: 6 sessions + 1 probe, 3 trials/session, latency = 2 min), in four groups of male and female Swiss mice: (1) Concomitant NIC [nicotine free base solution (50g/ml) in 2% saccharin to drink] and ETOH [ethanol solution (25%, 2g/kg) i.p. injected every other day] exposure; (2) NIC exposure; (3) ETOH exposure; (4) Vehicle (VEH). Once behavioral results can be affected by motor disorders, we assessed (a) locomotor activity through the Open field Test (one session, 5 min) and (b) coordination and balance through the ROTAROD Test (5 trials, latency = 2 min). To investigate the effects of NIC and/or ETOH exposure on the efficiency on excitatory amino acid transport, we assessed the [3H] D-aspartate uptake in mice hippocampus. The GLAST/EAAT1, a glial transporter, was assessed by Western-blot technique. During exposure, ETOH and NIC+ETOH animals showed deficits on memory through the session and probe trial in WMW while, during withdrawal, NIC and NIC+ETOH groups showed impairments on retention. There were no significant differences between the experimental groups in any parameters assessed in both motor tests, either during exposure and withdrawal. There was a significant decrease in the [3H] D-aspartate for NIC, ETOH and NIC+ETOH groups in the end of exposure, turning to the normal levels of EAATs activity during withdrawal. The NIC and ETOH treatment decreased the GLAST/EAAT1 expression on hippocampus in all ages tested. Ethanol use leads to memory impairments in adolescent mice, with more preeminent effects when associated to nicotine. However, the nicotine withdrawal showed a mandatory effect on memory impairments. Both drugs, singly or in co-exposure, alter activity and expression of EAATs, which suggests that biochemical results may be associated to the behavioral alterations.

A anóxia neonatal decorre da redução de oxigênio no feto ou no recém-nascido e provoca morte e morbidade principalmente nos prematuros. Neste projeto avaliamos se o exercício físico espontâneo em ratas gestantes atenua os problemas no desenvolvimento e na cognição provocados pela anóxia neonatal nos filhotes. Para tanto, avaliamos o desenvolvimento somático e sensorimotor dos filhotes até o desmame e na idade adulta avaliamos a sua memória espacial. Também analisamos a densidade de neurônios e a expressão relativa de sinapsina I no hipocampo de animais jovens e adultos. O exercício materno espontâneo foi capaz de reverter o atraso provocado pela anóxia neonatal no aparecimento de características físicas e reflexos. Em animais jovens, ele também diminuiu a redução, pela anóxia, da densidade neuronal no giro dentado e da expressão relativa de sinapsina I. Os efeitos do exercício materno e da anóxia neonatal aparentemente não persistiram até a vida adulta. Assim, o exercício materno espontâneo atenua os efeitos da anóxia neonatal em jovens. / Neonatal anoxia follows from oxygen reduction in fetus or newborn and causes death and morbidity mainly in premature children. We evaluated if spontaneous maternal exercise in pregnant rats attenuates problems in the development and in the cognition caused by neonatal anoxia in pups. Thereunto, we evaluated the somatic and sensory-motor development of pups until weaning and, at adult age, we evaluated their spatial memory. We also analysed the neuron density and the relative expression of synapsin I in the hippocampus of young and adult animals. The spontaneous maternal exercise was able to reverse the delay caused by neonatal anoxia in the development of physical traits and reflexes. In young animals, maternal exercise also decrease the reduction, by anoxia, of neuronal density in the dentate gyrus and of relative expression. of synapsin I. Maternal exercise and neonatal anoxia effects apparently did not persist until adulthood. Thus, spontaneous maternal exercise attenuates neonatal anoxia effects in Young rats.

In this work, we examined the executive functions of the hippocampus at the behavioral level as a so-called behavioral separation in adult rats. We studied an impact of day-to-day alternation versus sequential learning (and the order of learning) of two spatial tasks (Morris Water Maze and Active Allothetic Place Avoidance) testing different hippocampal functions (experiment 1), or an impact of sequential versus alternating learning of one task (Active Allothetic Place Avoidance) in two different rooms (experiment 2), on performance. We found out that rats are able to learn both tasks as well as to discriminate between the two contexts regardless of the order or alternating of learning. Because such executive functions are impaired in human patients suffering from schizophrenia, we used this procedure also in the rat model of schizophrenia induced by acute intraperitoneal application of dizocilpine (MK-801), glutamate NMDA receptors antagonist, in the dose of 0.08 mg/kg. We failed to selectively disrupt the behavioral separation, however, we observed general learning deficit and hyperlocomotion regardless of the alternation in the Active Allothetic Place Avoidance task in these rats. The cognitive impairments in connection with learning after such low dose of MK-801 in this task have not yet been...