In this dissertation, I examine the political organization of Maya states during the Classic period (AD 550-950) through the workings of an institutional order whose practices came to light in excavations at Xultun, Guatemala. Archaeological, artistic, and epigraphic evidence shows that members of this order, called Taaj, lived, worked and instructed others at a household compound called Los Sabios. Members specialized in indigenous Maya sciences and high-level ritual that were instrumental in the organized, astronomically-timed public ceremonies and crafted spectacles by which local sovereigns communicated and maintained political authority. The Taaj order first surfaced on a mural found within a small, central structure of Los Sabios. The artist(s) depicted three male Taaj members and two novices dressed in uniforms and labeled with ranked titles, with a high-ranking Taaj gesturing in ritual toward the enthroned ruling sovereign as the other Taaj look on. The mural also served as a palimpsest for scientific and astronomical calculations painted over and around the figures of the scene. Eventually, residents closed off this mural room and converted it into a mausoleum under which they buried a man dressed in the same uniform as the Taaj depicted on the mural. As household sub-floor burials were typical among the Maya, this discovery affirms that these Taaj resided at Los Sabios. Papermaking tools found throughout the residence suggest the Taaj recorded their scientific and ritual knowledge in barkpaper books. Such tools were also found buried with a woman at Los Sabios, showing her key role in creating books alongside the Taaj, despite her omission from the mural. Taaj has long been overlooked as a title, but my reconsideration of the term as it occurs elsewhere reveals its widespread use as such and indicates these Taaj figures existed throughout Maya area. These discoveries shed unexpected new light on governance and social organization among the Maya. Together, they reveal a political structure in which rulers relied on the expertise and secret knowledge of the Taaj to help sustain local systems of sovereignty as well as forms of class-based inequality that characterized Classic Maya society until the time of its collapse. / 2017-05-01

Este trabalho de pesquisa é sobre a prática da preservação da arte mural, desenvolvida na cidade de São Paulo e tem como objetivo identificar as bases do pensamento preservacionista da arte mural através da análise das intervenções de profissionais atuantes na área de conservação e restauração de obras murais, que se encontram remanescentes na arquitetura paulistana. O recorte escolhido para objeto de estudo corresponde aos trabalhos de arte mural realizados no período entre 1930 e 1960, período no qual houve uma intensa produção dessa arte na cidade de São Paulo, por artistas que estiveram vinculados ao Grupo Santa Helena. Foi considerado, também, o período correspondente ao final do século XX e início do século XXI como sendo o marco das intervenções nas obras murais que coincidem com o crescimento e incentivo das atividades de conservação e restauração e da preservação da arquitetura moderna. Através desta reflexão são considerados os conceitos que orientam a preservação da arte mural do ponto de vista teórico e a sua implantação na prática da conservação e restauração. A partir das intervenções de restauro sofridas pelas obras buscou-se desenvolver uma análise e também reunir elementos que permitissem criar subsídios para diretrizes de conservação e para estabelecimento de uma futura política de preservação integrada e preventiva das obras de arte mural, que fossem adequadas à nossa realidade. / This research is related to the practice of preservation of mural art developed in the city of São Paulo and the objective of this study is to identify the foundations of mural art preservation thought, through the professionals interventions works in the field of conservation and restoration of mural art, which are remains in architecture of São Paulo city. The cut-off chosen for this study corresponds to works of mural art made in the period between 1930 and 1960, during which there was an intense production of this type of art in São Paulo city, by artists who were linked to the Grupo Santa Helena. It was considered also the period corresponding to the late 20th and early 21st century, as an important period of the interventions in mural artworks that coincide with growth and encouraging the activities of conservation and restoration and the preservation of modern architecture. Through this reflection are considered the concepts that guide the preservation of this art from the theoretical point of view and its implementation in practice of conservation and restoration. From the restoration intervention experienced by artworks the research has involved the search for development of an analysis and also gather elements which allows creating subsidies to conservation guidelines and to establish a future policy of integrated and preventive preservation of mural artworks, which were suitable for our reality.

Este trabalho de pesquisa é sobre a prática da preservação da arte mural, desenvolvida na cidade de São Paulo e tem como objetivo identificar as bases do pensamento preservacionista da arte mural através da análise das intervenções de profissionais atuantes na área de conservação e restauração de obras murais, que se encontram remanescentes na arquitetura paulistana. O recorte escolhido para objeto de estudo corresponde aos trabalhos de arte mural realizados no período entre 1930 e 1960, período no qual houve uma intensa produção dessa arte na cidade de São Paulo, por artistas que estiveram vinculados ao Grupo Santa Helena. Foi considerado, também, o período correspondente ao final do século XX e início do século XXI como sendo o marco das intervenções nas obras murais que coincidem com o crescimento e incentivo das atividades de conservação e restauração e da preservação da arquitetura moderna. Através desta reflexão são considerados os conceitos que orientam a preservação da arte mural do ponto de vista teórico e a sua implantação na prática da conservação e restauração. A partir das intervenções de restauro sofridas pelas obras buscou-se desenvolver uma análise e também reunir elementos que permitissem criar subsídios para diretrizes de conservação e para estabelecimento de uma futura política de preservação integrada e preventiva das obras de arte mural, que fossem adequadas à nossa realidade. / This research is related to the practice of preservation of mural art developed in the city of São Paulo and the objective of this study is to identify the foundations of mural art preservation thought, through the professionals interventions works in the field of conservation and restoration of mural art, which are remains in architecture of São Paulo city. The cut-off chosen for this study corresponds to works of mural art made in the period between 1930 and 1960, during which there was an intense production of this type of art in São Paulo city, by artists who were linked to the Grupo Santa Helena. It was considered also the period corresponding to the late 20th and early 21st century, as an important period of the interventions in mural artworks that coincide with growth and encouraging the activities of conservation and restoration and the preservation of modern architecture. Through this reflection are considered the concepts that guide the preservation of this art from the theoretical point of view and its implementation in practice of conservation and restoration. From the restoration intervention experienced by artworks the research has involved the search for development of an analysis and also gather elements which allows creating subsidies to conservation guidelines and to establish a future policy of integrated and preventive preservation of mural artworks, which were suitable for our reality.

Mural art and its development in Czech republic This work deals with mural art as street art discipline. It briefly describes the development of muralism into the 20th century. Subsequently, he deals with the development of street art from the arrival of graffiti to the present, with the main emphasis being on mural art. The main part of the text shows this development in the Czech Republic, mentions the leading personalities of the Czech mural art scene and then maps its main centers and presents concrete examples of murals. Keywords Mural art, street art, graffiti, public space, Czech republic, art, Kaláb, Prague

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In recent times, the popularity and acceptance of urban art has gradually increased among residents of the community. Graffiti festivals are being arranged and large murals are beginning to be seen more and more in our cities. Graffiti has for many years been seen as a major societal problem and it has often been associated with crime. Today, graffiti is not associated to the same extent with crime among residents and it is easier to include graffiti as an art form in the public space. Graffiti can also be described as an effort to show up and express oneself in the city. Even though graffiti is more accepted today, there is still a policy in Stockholm, regarding painting and graffiti without a permit should be cleaned up within 24 hours, a so-called "zero tolerance for graffiti". Graffiti is usually illegal, although there are places where it is allowed to paint. It can be in the form of places or on so-called open or legal walls. One of the most popular places to practice graffiti in Sweden is Snösätragränd in Stockholm, which from being an old industrial area has developed into a graffiti area. In August 2020, the municipality of Stockholm began demolition of parts of the graffiti area, which has brought to the discussions about urban art as a de-prioritized art form in urban planning. There is thus a growing demand for the art form in society, but also signs of fear that it may lead to for example crime and littering. The purpose of this study is to create a deeper understanding of urban art and how urban art can be included in urban planning. It is thus important first to examine how public art is included and then understand what conditions the actors of urban art have for expressing their art in the public space. The knowledge about art in public spaces and about urban art is based on literature and research. Furthermore, the graffiti area Snösätragränd, which is currently facing demolition, has been chosen as a case study area to create a deeper understanding of the subject. The case study together with site visits, interviews and e-mail communications further contributes with a current and in-depth picture of the studied phenomenon in its context. The study concludes that there is both a need and a desire to view and express urban art in our cities. Furthermore, the study shows that the financial means for public art that exist today are insufficient to enable practitioners of urban art to perform and display their art in the public space. On the one hand, municipalities want to limit urban art with the motivation to avoid crime, on the other hand, there are also efforts to make room for artists to promote this art form. Finally, it is clear that there are different views on urban art and whether it should be included in the public space or not. The study is therefore important for understanding graffiti as an art form or a breeding ground for criminal activity. / Under senare tid har populariteten samt acceptansen för urban konst successivt ökat hos invånare i samhället. Det arrangeras bland annat olika graffitifestivaler och stora muralmålningar börjar synas mer och mer i våra städer. Graffiti har under många år setts som ett stort samhällsproblem och den har ofta associerats med kriminalitet. Idag associeras graffitti inte i lika stor utsträckning med kriminalitet bland invånarna och det är enklare att inkludera graffitti som en konstform i det offentliga rummet. Graffiti kan också beskrivas som en strävan att visa sig och yttra sig i staden. Även om graffiti idag är mer accepterat finns det fortfarande policy bland annat i Stockholm, gällande att målande och klottrande utan tillstånd ska saneras inom 24h, en så kallad ”nolltolerans för klottring”. Graffiti är oftast olagligt fast det finns ställen som det är tillåtet att måla på. Det kan vara i form av platser eller på så kallade öppna eller lagliga väggar. Ett av de mest populära ställen för att utöva graffiti i Sverige är Snösätragränd i Stockholm som från att vara ett gammalt industriområde utvecklats till ett graffitiområde. Augusti år 2020 påbörjade Stockholm stad rivningen i delarna av graffitiområdet, vilket har aktualiserat diskussionerna kring urban konst som en bortprioriterad konstform i stadsplaneringen. Det finns alltså en växande efterfrågan på konstformen inom samhället men också tecken på rädsla att det kan leda till bland annat brottslighet och nedskräpning. Syftet med denna studie är att skapa djupare förståelse för urban konst och hur urban konst kan inkluderas i stadsplaneringen. Det är således viktigt att undersöka hur offentlig konst inkluderas för att sedan förstå vilka förutsättningar den urbana konstens aktörer har för att uttrycka sin konst i det offentliga rummet. Med bakgrund av litteratur och forskning lyfts kunskap fram kring konst i offentliga rum och urban konst. Vidare har graffitiområdet Snösätragränd som idag står inför rivning, valts som fallstudieområde för att skapa djupare förståelse för ämnet. Fallstudien tillsammans med platsbesök, intervjuer och mejlkommunikation bidrar vidare med en aktuell och fördjupande bild av det studerade fenomenet i sitt sammanhang. Studiens slutsats är att det finns såväl ett behov som en önskan att beskåda och uttrycka urban konst i våra städer. Vidare visar studien på att de ekonomiska medlen för offentlig konst som finns idag är otillräckliga för att möjliggöra för utövare att uppföra och visa sin konst i det offentliga rummet. Å ena sidan vill kommuner begränsa urban konst med motivationen att undvika brottslighet, å andra sidan finns också insatser för att ge plats till konstnärer för att främja denna konstform. Det är slutligen tydligt att det finns olika åsikter om urban konst och om det bör inkluderas i det offentliga rummet. Studien är således viktig för att förstå graffiti som en konstform eller en grogrund för brottslig verksamhet.

Under senare tid har populariteten samt acceptansen för urban konst successivt ökat hos invånare i samhället. Det arrangeras bland annat olika graffitifestivaler och stora muralmålningar börjar synas mer och mer i våra städer. Graffiti har under många år setts som ett stort samhällsproblem och den har ofta associerats med kriminalitet. Idag associeras graffitti inte i lika stor utsträckning med kriminalitet bland invånarna och det är enklare att inkludera graffitti som en konstform i det offentliga rummet. Graffiti kan också beskrivas som en strävan att visa sig och yttra sig i staden. Även om graffiti idag är mer accepterat finns det fortfarande policy bland annat i Stockholm, gällande att målande och klottrande utan tillstånd ska saneras inom 24h, en så kallad ”nolltolerans för klottring”. Graffiti är oftast olagligt fast det finns ställen som det är tillåtet att måla på. Det kan vara i form av platser eller på så kallade öppna eller lagliga väggar. Ett av de mest populära ställen för att utöva graffiti i Sverige är Snösätragränd i Stockholm som från att vara ett gammalt industriområde utvecklats till ett graffitiområde. Augusti år 2020 påbörjade Stockholm stad rivningen i delarna av graffitiområdet, vilket har aktualiserat diskussionerna kring urban konst som en bortprioriterad konstform i stadsplaneringen. Det finns alltså en växande efterfrågan på konstformen inom samhället men också tecken på rädsla att det kan leda till bland annat brottslighet och nedskräpning. Syftet med denna studie är att skapa djupare förståelse för urban konst och hur urban konst kan inkluderas i stadsplaneringen. Det är således viktigt att undersöka hur offentlig konst inkluderas för att sedan förstå vilka förutsättningar den urbana konstens aktörer har för att uttrycka sin konst i det offentliga rummet. Med bakgrund av litteratur och forskning lyfts kunskap fram kring konst i offentliga rum och urban konst. Vidare har graffitiområdet Snösätragränd som idag står inför rivning, valts som fallstudieområde för att skapa djupare förståelse för ämnet. Fallstudien tillsammans med platsbesök, intervjuer och mejlkommunikation bidrar vidare med en aktuell och fördjupande bild av det studerade fenomenet i sitt sammanhang. Studiens slutsats är att det finns såväl ett behov som en önskan att beskåda och uttrycka urban konst i våra städer. Vidare visar studien på att de ekonomiska medlen för offentlig konst som finns idag är otillräckliga för att möjliggöra för utövare att uppföra och visa sin konst i det offentliga rummet. Å ena sidan vill kommuner begränsa urban konst med motivationen att undvika brottslighet, å andra sidan finns också insatser för att ge plats till konstnärer för att främja denna konstform. Det är slutligen tydligt att det finns olika åsikter om urban konst och om det bör inkluderas i det offentliga rummet. Studien är således viktig för att förstå graffiti som en konstform eller en grogrund för brottslig verksamhet. / In recent times, the popularity and acceptance of urban art has gradually increased among residents of the community. Graffiti festivals are being arranged and large murals are beginning to be seen more and more in our cities. Graffiti has for many years been seen as a major societal problem and it has often been associated with crime. Today, graffiti is not associated to the same extent with crime among residents and it is easier to include graffiti as an art form in the public space. Graffiti can also be described as an effort to show up and express oneself in the city. Even though graffiti is more accepted today, there is still a policy in Stockholm, regarding painting and graffiti without a permit should be cleaned up within 24 hours, a so-called "zero tolerance for graffiti". Graffiti is usually illegal, although there are places where it is allowed to paint. It can be in the form of places or on so-called open or legal walls. One of the most popular places to practice graffiti in Sweden is Snösätragränd in Stockholm, which from being an old industrial area has developed into a graffiti area. In August 2020, the municipality of Stockholm began demolition of parts of the graffiti area, which has brought to the discussions about urban art as a de-prioritized art form in urban planning. There is thus a growing demand for the art form in society, but also signs of fear that it may lead to for example crime and littering. The purpose of this study is to create a deeper understanding of urban art and how urban art can be included in urban planning. It is thus important first to examine how public art is included and then understand what conditions the actors of urban art have for expressing their art in the public space. The knowledge about art in public spaces and about urban art is based on literature and research. Furthermore, the graffiti area Snösätragränd, which is currently facing demolition, has been chosen as a case study area to create a deeper understanding of the subject. The case study together with site visits, interviews and e-mail communications further contributes with a current and in-depth picture of the studied phenomenon in its context. The study concludes that there is both a need and a desire to view and express urban art in our cities. Furthermore, the study shows that the financial means for public art that exist today are insufficient to enable practitioners of urban art to perform and display their art in the public space. On the one hand, municipalities want to limit urban art with the motivation to avoid crime, on the other hand, there are also efforts to make room for artists to promote this art form. Finally, it is clear that there are different views on urban art and whether it should be included in the public space or not. The study is therefore important for understanding graffiti as an art form or a breeding ground for criminal activity.

Le retour de l'Art mural à l'époque contemporaine" tourne autour de la problématique suivante: en quoi l'Art Mural est-il une nouvelle forme de métaphysique puisqu’elle permet à l'homme de projeter son âme sur un support et se retrouve ainsi dévoilée aux yeux de tous sous cette forme qui s’apparente à l" ekstase "soit un au dehors mis en mouvement par une "corporéité habitée" car le peintre muraliste est celui qui revendique l'esprit d'une époque et fusionne avec le mur pour créer une image, celle de l'invisible rendue visible. Le concept de « mur » sera abordé comme une pierre angulaire au travers des âges, comme support dans l’art moderne, art qui permet de faire un lien avec le passé mais surtout se démarque des arts contemporains car il sera nécessaire d’approcher les œuvres murales et le graffiti en général qui sera défini et fera l’objet d’une étude approfondie. Ainsi l’art rupestre qu’il est possible de comprendre d’après les études de Henri LHOTE, d’André LEROI-GOURHAN et de l’Abbé BREUIL pourra être mis en lumière notamment en décrivant les peintures pariétales retrouvées dans la grotte de Niaux, de Kapova, de Altamira, de Lascaux et de Chauvet qui représentent la première forme d’art humain et le commencement d’une spiritualité naissante. Le lien pourra être fait avec le symbolisme de l’Art égyptien et sa construction de l’image pour arriver à l’art décoratif des fresques de Pompéi et d’Herculanum où les graffitis de ces villes ont été étudiés par Eva CANTARELLA. De manière chronologique il sera intéressant de rappeler que le Moyen Age fut l’époque de la naissance des fresques romanes en vue de promouvoir une spiritualité qui évolue au cours des âges. Il existe aussi des techniques selon Cennino CENNINI qui explique les procédés de l’« intonaco » et de la fresque « a fresco » associés au père Ignazio POZZO. Enfin la période contemporaine fera l’objet de cette réflexion car les mouvements en peinture sont faits de liens mais surtout font rupture avec ce qui précède pour s’établir dans le temps selon l’expression de Valérie DUPONT, historienne de l’Art. / The return of Mural Art in the contemporary period” revolves round the following issue: In what way can one consider art to be a new form of metaphysics, since it allows man to project his soul on a support thus unveiling it to all in this form, which is close to a kind of “ecstasy”, i.e. an outside that is made to move through a “lived-in corporality”, for the mural painter claims the spirit of a period and merges with the wall so as to created an image – that of the invisible made visible. The “wall” concept will be examined as a foundation stone through the ages, as a support in modern art, a type of art that can create a link with the past but which especially stands out from contemporary art types, since we'll be studying mural works made by muralists as well as graffiti in general, which will be defined and studied in depth. Thus, rupestral art, which may be understood through the studies of Henri LHOTE, André LEROI-GOURHAN and Abbot BREUIL, can be explained most notably by looking at parietal paintings found in the Niaux, Kapova, Altamira, Lascaux and Chauvet caves, which represent the first form of human art and the beginning of a nascent spirituality. A link may be made to the symbolism of Egyptian art and its construction of image before reaching the decorative art of the Pompei and Herculanum frescoes – graffitis in those cities were studied by Eva CANTARELLA. It will be interesting, from a chronological point of view, to remember that the Middle Ages were the period when romanesque frescoes were born in order to further foster that age-old evolving spirituality. Such art was considered by Cennino CENNINI, who, along with father Ignazio POSSO explains the processes of “intonaco and the “a fresco” fresco. Finally, we'll have to study the modern period, since painting movements are made up of links and, more importantly, make a break with what preceded them, in order to last in time, as Valérie DUPONT, an arti historian, says.