Hypothermia therapy (HT) is used clinically following global cerebral ischemia (GCI) but its therapeutic mechanisms are not completely understood. An elucidation of such mechanisms may lead to novel therapeutic approaches that improve patient outcome. Using a murine model of GCI, we determined the effect of HT on the expression of inflammatory proteins in the hippocampus and serum. We also examined its effect on microglia/macrophage activation and neurodegeneration in the brain at 72 hours following ischemia, and its effect on long-term spatial memory/learning and contextual fear response. GCI led to increased neurodegeneration and microglia/macrophage activation in the hippocampus, and increased IL-1β and KC protein expression in the hippocampus at 72 hours. Hypothermia therapy attenuated these inflammatory responses. It also improved spatial learning/memory at 7 and 21 days, and preserved contextual fear response 21 days post-ischemia. Hypothermia therapy attenuated the post-ischemic inflammatory response, protected hippocampal neurons, and preserved long-term memory and learning.

Hypothermia therapy (HT) is used clinically following global cerebral ischemia (GCI) but its therapeutic mechanisms are not completely understood. An elucidation of such mechanisms may lead to novel therapeutic approaches that improve patient outcome. Using a murine model of GCI, we determined the effect of HT on the expression of inflammatory proteins in the hippocampus and serum. We also examined its effect on microglia/macrophage activation and neurodegeneration in the brain at 72 hours following ischemia, and its effect on long-term spatial memory/learning and contextual fear response. GCI led to increased neurodegeneration and microglia/macrophage activation in the hippocampus, and increased IL-1β and KC protein expression in the hippocampus at 72 hours. Hypothermia therapy attenuated these inflammatory responses. It also improved spatial learning/memory at 7 and 21 days, and preserved contextual fear response 21 days post-ischemia. Hypothermia therapy attenuated the post-ischemic inflammatory response, protected hippocampal neurons, and preserved long-term memory and learning.

The mechanisms by which antipsychotics (neuroleptics) produce their therapeutic effects in schizophrenia are largely unknown. Although neuroleptic efficacy is attributed to central dopamine D2 and/or serotonin 5-HT2 receptor antagonism, clinical improvements in schizophrenia are not seen until two or three weeks after daily neuroleptic administration. The mechanisms underlying the neuroleptic response must therefore occur downstream from initial receptor blockade and be a consequence of chronic neurotransmitter receptor blockade. The goal of the present study was to use neuroleptics with varied dopamine vs. serotonergic receptor blocking profiles to elucidate some of these intracellular post receptor mechanisms. Since the final steps of both dopamine and serotonin synthesis require the enzyme aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC), the effects of neuroleptics on AADC gene (mRNA) expression were examined in PC12 cells and compared to their effects on the synthetic enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and ' c-fos' (an early immediate gene [IEG]) mRNA. The neuroleptics examined did not significantly regulate AADC mRNA in PC12 cells, and only haloperidol upregulated TH and 'c-fos' mRNA. Later studies in rats showed that acute neuroleptic administration increased ' c-fos' mRNA, whereas the immunoreactivity of a related IEG (delta FosB) was increased upon chronic treatment. These studies and a subsequent dose response study demonstrated that upregulation of both 'c-fos' mRNA and delta FosB immunoreactivity was most prominent in dopaminergic projection areas including the striatum and nucleus accumbens. Because it has been suggested that neuroleptic treatment might prevent neurodegeneration in schizophrenia, the effects of neuroleptics on the mRNA expression of neuroprotective target genes of delta FosB were examined both ' in vivo' and 'in vitro'. These genes included brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), the neuroprotective enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD), and the low affinity nerve growth factor receptor (p75). While dopamine D2 blockade unfavorably regulated BDNF and p75 mRNA, 5-HT 2 blockade either had no effect on or favorably regulated BDNF, SOD, and p75 mRNA. Thus, although little about the contribution of serotonergic blockade in the neuroleptic response was determined, dopaminergic blockade regulated IEG's and several of their target genes. Future studies will be needed to understand the role of 5-HT2 receptor blockade in the neuroleptic response.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a degenerative disorder where the distribution of pathology throughout the brain is not random but follows a predictive pattern used for pathological staging. While the involvement of defined functional systems is fairly well established for more advanced stages, the initial sites of degeneration are still ill defined. The prevailing concept suggests an origin within the transentorhinal and entorhinal cortex (EC) from where pathology spreads to other areas. Still, this concept has been challenged recently suggesting a potential origin of degeneration in nonthalamic subcortical nuclei giving rise to cortical innervation such as locus coeruleus (LC) and nucleus basalis of Meynert (NbM). To contribute to the identification of the early site of degeneration, here, we address the question whether cortical or subcortical degeneration occurs more early and develops more quickly during progression of AD. To this end, we stereologically assesses neurone counts in the NbM, LC and EC layer-II in the same AD patients ranging from preclinical stages to severe dementia. In all three areas, neurone loss becomes detectable already at preclinical stages and is clearly manifest at prodromal AD/MCI. At more advanced AD, cell loss is most pronounced in the NbM > LC > layer-II EC. During early AD, however, the extent of cell loss is fairly balanced between all three areas without clear indications for a preference of one area. We can thus not rule out that there is more than one way of spreading from its site of origin or that degeneration even occurs independently at several sites in parallel.

Synucleins represent a conserved family of small proteins that include α-, β-, and γ- isoforms, which are highly expressed in neurons of the vertebrate nervous system. The normal function of these proteins is not well understood. However, in humans α- synuclein dysfunction is causatively linked to Parkinson’s Disease (PD), where it abnormally accumulates in neuronal cell bodies as protein aggregates that are associated with neuronal death. Although the associations between synuclein accumulation and cellular death are established in PD, the extent to which this occurs in other contexts, such as neuronal injury, is unknown. Furthermore, the effects of synuclein aggregation on the function of synapses, where synuclein is normally localized, are not well understood. To address these questions I took advantage of the experimentally accessible nervous system of the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). I used molecular cloning and phylogenetic analyses to characterize three lamprey synuclein orthologues, one of which is highly expressed within a class of neurons called the giant reticulospinal (RS) neurons. Spinal cord injury induces the accumulation of synuclein protein only within a population of poor surviving RS neurons, and this accumulation is correlated with cellular death. Thus, similar to PD, the abundance of synuclein protein is associated with neuronal toxicity. In a related project, I demonstrated that elevating synuclein levels at synapses, such as occurs in PD, is deleterious to synaptic function through an inhibition of synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling. By injecting excess synuclein protein directly into the axons of giant RS neurons, and analyzing the ultrastructural morphology of synapses, I have shown that clathrin-mediated synaptic vesicle endocytosis was greatly inhibited. The conserved N-terminal domain was sufficient to inhibit vesicle recycling, and injecting synuclein mutants with disrupted N-terminal α-helices caused reduced defects in SV recycling. Therefore the α-helical structure of the N-terminus is necessary to inhibit SV recycling at early stages of clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Binding interactions with clathrin-mediated endocytosis components, such as the phosphoinositide lipid PI(4)P support this hypothesis. These studies provide a better understanding of the mechanisms by which synuclein dysfunction leads to neuronal death after injury and synaptic dysfunction in PD and other synuclein-associated diseases. / text

Η νόσος του Πάρκινσον χαρακτηρίζεται από την προοδευτική εκφύλιση της μελαινοραβδωτής ντοπαμινεργικής οδού που οδηγεί σε κινητικές διαταραχές. Θεωρείται πολυπαραγοντική νόσος, η αιτιολογία της οποίας παραμένει άγνωστη. Με δεδομένο ότι η διαθέσιμη φαρμακευτική αγωγή της νόσου στηρίζεται στη συμπτωματολογία της και έχει σοβαρές παρενέργειες, η νευροπροστασία από τα πρώϊμα στάδια της νόσου αποτελεί τομέα έντονης έρευνας. Τα τελευταία χρόνια, ένα ευρύ φάσμα παραγόντων ερευνήθηκε ως προς το νευροπροστατευτικό τους ρόλο σε νευροτοξικά μοντέλα οξείας ντοπαμινεργικής εκφύλισης. Ο μεταλλαγμένος μυς “weaver” αποτελεί ένα μοναδικό γενετικό μοντέλο μελαινοραβδωτής νευροεκφύλισης, η οποία λαμβάνει χώρα ενδογενώς και προοδευτικά, αρχίζοντας μετά την 7η μετεμβρυϊκή ημέρα (Ρ7) και προσεγγίζοντας το 50% την 21η μετεμβρυϊκή ημέρα (Ρ21). Στην παρούσα μελέτη, προκειμένου να διερευνηθούν νευροπροστατευτικοί μηχανισμοί κατά τα πρώτα στάδια της νευροεκφυλιστικής διαδικασίας στο μυ “weaver”, και να επιτευχθεί μία πλειοτροπική θεραπευτική δράση, χορηγήθηκαν τρεις φαρμακευτικοί νευροπροστατευτικοί παράγοντες με διαφορετικούς μηχανισμούς δράσης καθώς και ένα σχήμα συνδυασμού τους. Συγκεκριμένα, χορηγήθηκαν, μεμονωμένα και σε συνδυασμό, στους μυς “weaver” N-ακετυλοκυστεΐνη (ΝAC) (αντιοξειδωτική δράση), ασπιρίνη (αντιφλεγμονώδης δράση) και 17β οιστραδιόλη [Ε2] (αντιοξειδωτική, αντιαποπτωτική, νευροτροφική δράση) σε καθημερινή βάση από την Ρ1 μέχρι την Ρ21. Το νευροπροστατευτικό αποτέλεσμα αξιολογήθηκε με ανοσοϊστοχημικό προσδιορισμό των ντοπαμινεργικών νευρώνων της συμπαγούς μοίρας της μέλαινας ουσίας (SNpc) των μυών στους οποίους χορηγήθηκαν τα παραπάνω φάρμακα. Η χορήγηση των NAC και ασπιρίνης δεν επηρέασε την επιβίωση των ντοπαμινεργικών νευρώνων (DA) των weaver μυών. Αντίθετα η χορήγηση της 17β οιστραδιόλης οδήγησε σε σημαντική επιβίωση των DA νευρώνων της SNpc, της τάξης του 48%, στους weaver μυς που έλαβαν την αγωγή, συγκριτικά με τους weaver μυς που έλαβαν φυσιολογικό ορό. Επιπλέον η χορήγηση του συνδυασμού των τριών φαρμάκων (cocktail) προώθησε σε ακόμα μεγαλύτερο βαθμό την επιβίωση των DA νευρώνων της SNpc, σε ποσοστό 86%. Οι weaver μύες που έλαβαν το cocktail εμφάνισαν 26% περισσότερους DA νευρώνες σε σύγκριση με τους weaver μυς που έλαβαν μεμονωμένα 17β οιστραδιόλη προτείνοντας πιθανή συνεργιστική δράση μεταξύ 17β οιστραδιόλης και NAC. Η διερεύνηση του μηχανισμού της νευροεκφύλισης στην SNpc και της παρεχόμενης νευροπροστασίας από τη χορήγηση της 17β οιστραδιόλης και του cocktail πραγματοποιήθηκε σε δύο επίπεδα. Αρχικά με τον προσδιορισμό μιας σειράς δεικτών οξειδωτικού στρες όπως η υπεροξείδωση λιπιδίων και δείκτες της θειολικής κατάστασης του κυττάρου (GSH, GSSG, CSH NPSSC, PSH, PSSP, NPSH, NSPSSR). Ο προσδιορισμός της υπεροξείδωση λιπιδίων πραγματοποιήθηκε στο μεσεγκέφαλο και το ραβδωτό σώμα των φυσιολογικών και weaver μυών που έλαβαν φυσιολογικό ορό (saline +/+ και saline wv/wv), 17 β οιστραδιόλη (17β +/+ και 17β wv/wv) cocktail (cocktail +/+ και cocktail wv/wv). Τα επίπεδα της υπεροξείδωσης λιπιδίων, στο μεσεγκέφαλο, αυξήθηκαν περίπου κατά 98% στους saline wv/wv μυς συγκριτικά με τους saline +/+ δείχνοντας παρουσία έντονου οξειδωτικού στρες στην παθολογική κατάσταση των weaver μυών. Ήταν ενδιαφέρον όμως το γεγονός ότι η λιπιδική υπεροξείδωση ανεστάλη σε ποσοστό 27% στους 17β wv/wv ενώ επανήλθε στα φυσιολογικά επίπεδα στους cocktail wv/wv μύες. Από τους υπόλοιπους δείκτες που εξετάστηκαν μόνο το NPSSC έδειξε διαφορές μεταξύ saline +/+ και saline wv/wv, ενώ οι GSSG, PSSP και PSH ακολούθησαν παρόμοια αύξηση στους cocktail +/+ και cocktail wv/w. Οι παρατηρήσεις αυτές δείχνουν ότι οι συγκεκριμένοι δείκτες από μόνοι τους δεν μπορούν να δώσουν σαφή εικόνα της οξειδωτικής κατάστασης, καθώς αποτελούν ταχέως μεταβαλλόμενα συστατικά αντιοξειδωτικών κύκλων. Στη συνέχεια διερευνήθηκε η έκφραση των γονιδίων Lasp1, Supt14h, Nr4a2 (nurr1), Dlg4 και του γονιδίου του μεταφορέα της σεροτονίνης (SERT), τα οποία φαίνονται να εμπλέκονται στα μονοπάτια της νευροεκφύλισης, στη μεσεγκεφαλική περιοχή και στο ραβδωτό σώμα των weaver μυών. Δεν παρατηρήθηκαν διαφορές στα επίπεδα έκφρασής τους με χρήση της τεχνικής RT-PCR σε καμία από τις υπό εξέταση περιοχές. Τα αποτελέσματα της παρούσας εργασίας οδηγούν στο συμπέρασμα ότι η 17β-οιστραδιόλη παρείχε σημαντική νευροπροστασία στους ντοπαμινεργικούς νευρώνες, για πρώτη φορά, ενός μοντέλου in vivo, ενδογενούς, προοδευτικής μελαινοραβδωτής νευροεκφύλισης, του μοντέλου weaver. Στο μηχανισμό της νευροπροστατευτικής δράσης της Ε2 φαίνεται να παίζει σημαντικό ρόλο η αντιοξειδωτική της δράση αφού η χορήγησή της αναστέλλει τη λιπιδική υπεροξείδωση. Επιπλέον η νευροπροστατευτική δράση της Ε2 ενδυναμώθηκε σημαντικά κατά τη συγχορήγηση του NAC, προτείνοντας την ύπαρξη συνέργειας μεταξύ της Ε2 και της GSH, για πρώτη φορά σε ένα in vivo μοντέλο νευροεκφύλισης. Η ενίσχυση του νευροπροστατευτικού αποτελέσματος από το cocktail δίνει ένα πρόσθετο επιχείρημα στην υπόθεση του αντιοξειδωτικού τρόπου δράσης της Ε2 αφού παράλληλα το cocktail επαναφέρει την υπεροξείδωση των λιπιδίων στα φυσιολογικά επίπεδα. Οι παρατηρήσεις αυτές προτείνουν την Ε2 ως μια μελλοντική υποψήφια φαρμακευτική αγωγή για νευροεκφυλιστικές καταστάσεις, όπως είναι η νόσος του Πάρκινσον, για τα θηλυκά βέβαια άτομα. Eπιπλέον προτείνουν ότι ο συνδυασμός της Ε2 και του NAC μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε εφαρμογή μικρότερων και κατά συνέπεια λιγότερο επιβαρυντικών, από άποψη παρενεργειών, δόσεων που θα οδηγεί σε ίδιο ή και μεγαλύτερο νευροπροστατευτικό αποτέλεσμα με τη μεμονωμένη χορήγηση της 17β-οιστραδιόλης. / Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by the progressive degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic innervation that leads to motor disturbances. It is considered to be a multifactor disease, the etiology of which still remains unknown. Since currently available treatments are only symptomatic, having severe side-effects, neuroprotection from the early stages of the disease has been given much attention as a promising approach to PD management. Indeed, a broad range of agents has been investigated for their neuroprotective role in neurotoxical models of acute dopaminergic degeneration. “Weaver” mutant mouse represents a unique genetic model, in which the nigrostriatal neurodegeneration occurs endogenously and progressively, starting after postnatal day 7 (P7) and reaching 50% at P21. In the present study, aiming to identify neuroprotective mechanisms in the early progression of the “weaver” degenerative process and to achieve a potentially pleiotropic therapeutic action, we applied three pharmaceutical agents with different mechanisms of action, as well as a scheme combining them. Specifically, “weaver” mice were treated, individually and in combination, with N-acetylcysteine (NAC) (antioxidant), aspirine (anti-inflammatory) and 17b-estradiol [E2] (antioxidant, antiapoptotic, neurotrophic) daily, from P1 to P21. The neuroprotective effect was evaluated by immunohistochemical detection of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SNpc) of treated animals. The administration of ΝΑC and aspirine did not influence the survival of (DA) neurons of weaver mice. On the contrary, the administration of 17b estradiol led to significant survival of DA neurons of SNpc, approximately 48%, in weaver mice that received E2, comparatively with weaver mice that received saline. Moreover the administration of the combination of the three drugs (cocktail) promoted the survival of DA neurons of SNpc, approximately 86% to a higher degree. Weaver mice that received cocktail had 26% more DA neurons compared to weaver mice that received individually 17b estradiol, proposing a possible synergistic action between 17b estradiol and NAC. The investigation of mechanism of neurodegeneration in SNpc and provided neuroprotection by 17b estradiol and cocktail, was realised in two levels. Initiall, by determination of oxidative stress markers, like lipid peroxidation and markers of cellular thiol redox (GSH, GSSG, CSH NPSSC, PSH, PSSP, NPSH, NSPSSR). The determination of lipid peroxidation was realised in the midbrain and striatum of normal and weaver mice that received saline (saline +/+ and saline wv/wv), 17 b estradiol (17b +/+ and 17b wv/wv) cocktail (cocktail +/+ and cocktail wv/wv). Lipid peroxidation levels in the midbrain were increased about 98% in saline wv/wv mice comparatively with the saline +/+, showing the presence of intense oxidative stress in the weaver mutant mouse. It was interesting, however, the fact that lipid peroxidation was inhibited approximately 27% in 17b wv/wv mice, while it was reverted at the normal levels in cocktail wv/wv mice. Regarding to the other oxidative markers that were examined, only NPSSC showed differences between saline +/+ and saline wv/wv, while the GSSG, PSSP and PSH followed similar increasement in both cocktail +/+ and cocktail wv/w animals. This observation indicates that these markers alone cannot give a clear figure of oxidative situation, as they constitute rapidly altered components of antioxidant cycles. Afterwards, we investigated the expression of genes Lasp1, Supt14h, Nr4a2 (nurr1), Dlg4 and serotonin transporter’s gene (SERT), which appear to be involved in neurodegeneration pathways, in the midbrain ant striatum of normal and weaver mice. There were not observed differences in their expression levels (using the RT-PCR technique) in both regions investigated. The results of the present study, lead to the conclusion that 17b-estradiol provided important neuroprotection in the DA neurons, for the first time, in a model of in vivo, endogenous, progressive dopaminergic degeneration, the weaver model. The mechanism of E2’s neuroprotective effect appears to be antioxidant as the administration of E2 suspends lipid peroxidation. Moreover the E2’s neuroprotective effect was strengthened significantly by the co-treatment of NAC, proposing the existence of synergy between E2 and GSH, for the first time in an in vivo model of neurodegeneration. The reinforced cocktail’s result gives an additional argument in the hypothesis of antioxidant mechanism of E2’s action, as cocktail, at the same time, restores lipid peroxidation in normal levels. These observations propose E2 as a future candidate pharmaceutic treatment for neurodegenerative situations, like PD, of course for female individuals. Moreover they propose that the combined treatment of E2 and NAC, can lead to the application of lower and, in consequence, less aggravating doses, concerning the side effects, that will lead to same or even higher neuroprotective result with the individual administration of 17b-estradiol

Lafora disease (LD) is a rare yet invariably fatal form of epilepsy characterized by progressive degeneration of the central nervous and motor systems and accumulation of insoluble glucans within cells. LD results from mutation of either the phosphatase laforin, an enzyme that dephosphorylates cellular glycogen, or the E3 ubiquitin ligase malin, the binding partner of laforin. Currently, there are no therapeutic options for LD, or reported methods by which the specific activity of glucan phosphatases such as laforin can be easily measured. To facilitate our translational studies, we developed an assay with which the glucan phosphatase activity of laforin as well as emerging members of the glucan phosphatase family can be characterized. We then adapted this assay for the detection of endogenous laforin activity from human and mouse tissue. This laforin bioassay will prove useful in the detection of functional laforin in LD patient tissue following the application of therapies to LD patients. We subsequently developed an in vitro readthrough reporter system in order to assess the efficacy of aminoglycosides in the readthrough of laforin and malin nonsense mutations. We found that although several laforin and malin nonsense mutations exhibited significant drug-induced readthrough, the location of the epitope tag used to detect readthrough products dramatically affected our readthrough results. Cell lines established from LD patients with nonsense mutations are thus required to accurately assess the efficacy of aminoglycosides as a therapeutic option for LD. Using hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (DXMS), we then gained insight into the molecular etiology of several point mutations in laforin that cause LD. We identified a novel motif in the phosphatase domain of laforin that shares homology with glycosyl hydrolases (GH) and appears to play a role in the interaction of laforin with glucans. We studied the impact of the Y294N and P301L LD mutations within this GH motif on glucan binding. Surprisingly, these mutations did not reduce glucan binding as expected, rather enhancing the binding of laforin to glucans. These findings elucidate the mechanism by which laforin interacts with and acts upon glucan substrates, providing a target for the development of therapeutic compounds.

Genome wide association studies (GWAS) have identified the H1 microtubule associated protein tau (MAPT) haplotype single nucleotide polymorphisms as leading common risk variants for Parkinson's disease (PD), progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and corticobasal degeneration (CBD). Gene expression studies have demonstrated haplotype-specific increases in expression of MAPT exon 3-containing transcripts from the protective H2 allele compared to the H1. The difference in alternative splicing between the haplotypes likely contributes risk or protection in the absence of protein coding variants. Here, we investigate the regulation of MAPT exon 3 alternative splicing by common, risk-associated, non-coding, haplotype-specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) through a combination of in silico analysis of the MAPT locus, in vitro gene expression and biochemistry studies. Comparative sequence analysis of whole-locus genomic H1 and H2 MAPT (143 kb) vectors showed they capture over 86% of the MAPT sequence diversity. We generated and expressed haplotype-hybrid H1 and H2 MAPT vectors in a human neuroblastoma cell culture model and demonstrated that a functional SNP rs17651213 near the exon 3 5' splice site regulates exon 3 inclusion in a haplotype-specific manner. Using RNA-electrophoretic mobility shift assays (RNA-EMSA), we showed differential RNA-protein complex formation at the H1 and H2 sequence variants of SNP rs17651213. We further identified candidate trans-acting splicing factors interacting with functional SNP rs17651213 sequences by RNA-protein pull-down experiment and mass spectrometry. Finally, gene knockdown of candidate splice factors identified by mass spectrometry demonstrated a role for hnRNP F and hnRNP Q in the haplotype-specific regulation of exon 3 inclusion. In this study, we have dissected the MAPT locus to identify sequences regulating the allele-specific alternative splicing of exon 3 and provided mechanistic insights into how common non-coding H1/H2 MAPT haplotype-specific SNPs may contribute to the risk/protection of neurodegeneration at a complex genetic locus.

The dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) is responsible for the marked motor impairment observed in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this are not completely understood. Since by the time of diagnosis, 50-70% of the dopaminergic neurons of the nigrostriatal pathway have already been degenerated, it is difficult to investigate the early-stage events of disease pathogenesis. Due to inaccessibility of the human brain to study initial pathogenic mechanisms of the disease, experimental models have been developed in an attempt to elucidate PD etiology and its progression. Nevertheless, PD models are a controversial issue in neuroscience research since it is challenging to mimic human neuronal complexity. Therefore, the lack of optimal models that recreate disease pathology is one of the causes of failure of clinical trials that have attempted to find new/better PD therapies. Taking this in consideration, the development of more suitable models is necessary to improve our knowledge regarding PD etiological mechanisms. Additionally, the understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of models already established would also be beneficial for PD research, which our group addressed by reviewing this subject. Considering this, we chose SH-SY5Y cells as a PD model for our studies. To investigate the initial stages of PD-induced neurodegeneration, our work focused in the role of cofilin-1, a protein involved in mitochondrial dysfunction caused by oxidant-induced-apoptosis, which are two pathogenic processes strongly related to PD. Hence, in the thesis, we aimed to validate the use of retinoic-acid-(RA)-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells as an in vitro model and use it to investigate the potential role of cofilin-1 in the initial molecular and cellular mechanisms of PD. Although SH-SY5Y cells are widely used in PD research, their major drawback is their lack of important neuronal features, such as low levels of proliferation and stellate morphology. On the other hand, SH-SY5Y cells can acquire a neuronal phenotype when treated with differentiation agents such as RA. Since several protocols have been described, the consequence of which may be the discrepancies observed among studies regarding neuronal and dopaminergic features. In Chapter I, we aimed to validate a RA-differentiation protocol for SH-SY5Y cells previously established by our research group, focusing upon characterization of neuronal features and its subsequent response to 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), a toxin widely used to induce dopaminergic degeneration. RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells have low proliferative rates, a pronounced neuronal morphology and high expression of genes related to synapse vesicle cycle, dopamine synthesis/degradation, and dopamine transporter (DAT). After exploring phenotypic differences between these two models, we verified that RA-differentiated cells were more sensitive to 6-OHDA toxicity than undifferentiated cells, which could be related to an increase of DAT immunocontent. Many lines of evidence have showed that DAT is responsible for 6-OHDA uptake in vivo. Once inside the neuron, 6-OHDA underwent auto-oxidation causing a significant increase in oxidative stress. However, toxin uptake is not an essential step in undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells, as auto-oxidation occurs extracellularly. We showed here, for the first time, that RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells can mimic, at least in part, an important mechanism of the 6-OHDA-induced cell death found in previous in vivo studies. Hence, the cellular model established by our research group presents essential neuronal features, being a suitable model for PD research. In Chapter II, RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells were used as cellular model to investigate disease molecular mechanisms, focusing upon cofilin-1. Our previous data have shown that oxidation of non-phosphorylate (activated) cofilin-1 leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death induced by apoptosis in tumour cells. Here we found that cofilin-1 played a role in early stages of neuronal apoptosis induced by 6-OHDA in our cellular model since cofilin-1 mitochondrial translocation precedes organelle dysfunction. Overexpression of wild type CFL1 resulted in increased sensitivity of SH-SY5Y cells to 6-OHDA-induced neuronal cell death. Furthermore, overexpression of non-oxidizable CFL1 containing Cys-to-Ala mutations (positions 39, 80 and 139) increased neuronal resistance to this toxin, suggesting that oxidation is an important step in 6-OHDA toxicity. Follow-up experiments were performed in order to evaluate clinically whether cofilin-1 pathway proteins content is altered in PD post mortem human brain. Our findings showed a significant decrease in p-cofilin-1/cofilin-1 ratio in PD patients, which indicates an increase in the amount of activated cofilin-1 available for oxidation. Moreover, through principal component analysis, the immunodetection of cofilin-1 pathway proteins were able to discriminate controls and PD individuals during the early-stage of neuropathological changings. Hence, we demonstrated, for the first time, a possible role for cofilin-1 in PD pathogenesis and its potential use as biomarker. Taken together, our data showed that RA-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells present terminally-differentiated dopaminergic neuron features, that are essential to mimic dopaminergic neurons. By using this cellular model and post mortem brain tissue, we also demonstrated a possible role for cofilin-1 in early steps of the neurodegeneration process found in PD, which it could impact drug and biomarker discovery researches.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Regular practice of physical activity promotes beneficial effects to the body. However, excessive duration and intensity of exercise may surpass individual tolerance to exercise, generating oxidative stress (OS). Studies have shown these effects in various organs, such as the heart and muscles, but little is known about their action and mechanisms in the brain. Various neurological and neurodegenerative diseases are associated with OS and neurotoxicity. Considering these aspects, the first objective of this study was to determine the influence of chronic moderate exercise in an OS model induced by reserpine in rats. The animals were submitted to daily sessions of swimming, with a gradual increase in the length of training. After eight weeks, the animals received two injections of reserpine or control solutions (1 mg/kg-sc), alternately. A behavioral evaluation was performed, after which the rats were euthanized and the striatum was dissected for enzymatic and biochemical assays. Reserpine increased the vacuous chewing movements frequency (VCM) and facial twitching (FT), as well as catalase activity, but decreased reduced glutathione levels (GSH). Exercise partially prevented FT, and partially recovered GSH levels, but did not modify the effects on catalase and VCM. There was a positive correlation between catalase activity and orofacial dyskinesia (OD) and a negative correlation between GSH and OD. The second objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of an intense physical activity in the same model of OS. Rats were submitted to eleven weeks of swimming (1 h/day), where each rat s load was increased according to its body weight until reaching 7% of its weight. Behavioral evaluations were performed before euthanasia and the striatum was then dissected for assays. The effectiveness of the training was confirmed through reduced levels of serum lactate and cardiac hypertrophy, observed in exercised animals. Intense exercise reduced the locomotor index and exploratory activity of the animals, demonstrating the development of emotional stress. In the presence of reserpine, exercise increased lipid peroxidation (TBARS) and caused an increase in catalase activity, which were positively correlated with each other. Based on the results, it was concluded that chronic physical activity of moderate intensity improved the antioxidant defenses in movement disorders associated with cerebral OS. On the other hand, excessive exercise caused negative emotional disorders and, in the presence of another aggressor agent, modified brain antioxidant capacity, which possibly could aggravate cases of neurological and/or neurodegenerative diseases associated with oxidative processes. / A atividade física praticada de maneira regular promove adaptações benéficas ao organismo, enquanto a inadequação do tempo e intensidade pode exceder a tolerância individual ao exercício gerando estresse oxidativo (EO). Estudos mostram esses efeitos em diversos órgãos como, por exemplo, coração e músculos, mas pouco se conhece sobre sua ação e mecanismos em nível cerebral. Diversas doenças neurológicas e neurodegenerativas estão associadas ao EO e neurotoxicidade. Considerando esses aspectos, o primeiro objetivo desse estudo foi determinar a influência do exercício crônico moderado em modelo de EO induzido por reserpina em ratos. Os animais foram submetidos a sessões diárias de natação com aumento gradual no tempo de treinamento e, após oito semanas, receberam duas doses de solução de reserpina ou controle (1 mg/kg-sc) em dias alternados. Fez-se avaliação comportamental, eutanásia dos animais e retirada da região estriatal do cérebro para determinação enzimática e bioquímica. A reserpina aumentou a freqüência dos movimentos de mascar vazio (MMV) e o tempo de tremor facial (TF); aumentou a atividade da catalase e diminui os níveis de glutationa reduzida (GSH). O exercício preveniu parcialmente o TF e houve recuperação parcial nos níveis de GSH, mas não modificou os efeitos sobre a catalase e MMV. Foi observada uma correlação positiva entre a atividade da catalase e o desenvolvimento de discinesia orofacial (DO), e uma correlação negativa entre GSH e DO. O segundo objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos de uma atividade física intensa sobre este mesmo modelo de EO. Os animais foram submetidos a onze semanas de natação (1 h/dia) com aumento gradual na carga de treinamento até que essa atingisse 7% de seu peso corporal. Realizaram-se as avaliações de comportamento, eutanásia e retirada do estriado para análises. A efetividade do treinamento foi confirmada através dos níveis diminuídos de lactato sérico e do desenvolvimento de hipertrofia cardíaca, observados nos animais exercitados. O exercício intenso reduziu a atividade locomotora e exploratória dos animais, demonstrando desenvolvimento de estresse emocional. Na presença de reserpina, o exercício elevou a peroxidação lipídica (TBARS) e provocou aumento na atividade da catalase, cujos parâmetros apresentaram correlação positiva. Com estes estudos se concluiu que a atividade física crônica de intensidade moderada foi capaz de melhorar as defesas antioxidantes nos distúrbios motores associados ao EO cerebral. Por outro lado, o exercício excessivo provocou alterações emocionais negativas e, quando na presença de um agressor adicional, modificou a capacidade antioxidante do cérebro, o que poderia agravar casos de doenças neurológicas e/ou neurodegenerativas associadas a processos oxidativos.