CK2 is a ubiquitous serine/threonine protein kinase implicated in numerous cellular processes as well as in tumorigenesis. CK2 is composed of two catalytic (αα, αα’, α’α’) subunits and two regulatory (ββ) subunits that assemble to form the active CK2 holoenzyme. CK2 has been shown to phosphorylate, interact with, and regulate other proteins, including other protein kinases. CK2 substrates can be initially bound by the CK2β regulatory subunit, which acts as a docking site to facilitate phosphorylation and mediate CK2 substrate specificity. In a screen to identify novel CK2β interacting proteins, I identified three novel CK2β interactors, including the mitogen- and stress-activated kinase 2 (MSK2), which I pursued for further characterization. MSK2, and the closely related isoform MSK1, are nuclear kinases that are activated following mitogen stimulation or cellular stress, including UV radiation, by the ERK1/2 and p38-MAPK signaling cascades, respectively. However, factors that differentially regulate MSK1 and MSK2 have not been well characterized. In my thesis, I demonstrate that CK2, which contributes to NF-κB activation following UV radiation in a p38-dependent manner, physically interacts with MSK2 but not MSK1 and that CK2 inhibition specifically impairs UV-induced MSK2 kinase activation. A putative site of CK2 phosphorylation was mapped to MSK2 residue serine-324 and when substituted to alanine (S324A) also compromised MSK2 activity. RNA interference-mediated depletion of MSK2 in human MDA-MB-231 cells, but not MSK1 depletion, resulted in impaired UV-induced phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 at serine-276 in vivo, which was restored by the ectopic expression of MSK2 but not by MSK2-S324A. Furthermore, UV-induced p65 transactivation capacity was dependent on MSK2, MSK2 residue S324, and p65-S276. These results suggest that MSK1 and MSK2 are differentially regulated by CK2 during the UV response and that MSK2 is the major protein kinase responsible for the UV-induced phosphorylation of p65 at S276 that positively regulates NF-κB activity in MDA-MB-231 cells.

RelA/p65 is a main subunit of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) that regulates expression of genes involved in cell growth and survival, stress response, and inflammation, but its oncogenic or tumor-suppressive function in tumorigenesis has been highly controversial. Hundreds of NF-kappaB inhibitors have been developed for targeted cancer therapy, but fail to achieve anticipated anticancer efficacy. Complexity of posttranslational modifications may contribute to tumorigenic diversity of RelA/p65, but mechanisms of action remain unclear. Here we show that phosphorylation of RelA/p65 at Ser536 functions as a tumor suppressor. In normal human colon mucosa, RelA/p65 phosphorylation at Ser536 is gradually increased with the maturation and apoptotic shedding of cryptic cells, but the phosphorylation is significantly decreased in colon tumors. In RelA/p65-silenced breast and colon cancer cells, reconstitution of a constitutively active RelA/p65, whose Ser536 was replaced by aspartic acid (named p65/S536D), triggered dramatic apoptosis and autophagy or senescence upon the cell context, by affecting the expression of a range of cell death/survival genes. Reconstitution with a phosphorylation-deficient RelA/p65 whose Ser536 was replaced by alanine (called p65/S536A) had no effect on cell growth and survival. Intratumoral delivery of p65/S536D effectively suppressed tumor growth in nude mice and was marked with apoptotic cell death. Together our data suggest that it is the phosphorylation at Ser536 that confers NF-kappaB RelA/p65 a tumor-suppressive role. In addition to driving cell death, the phosphorylation of RelA/p65 on Ser536 is also beneficial for chemosensitivity in cancer therapy. Literature reports that NF-kappaB activation contributes to chemoresistance by regulating oncogenic pathways and multi-drug resistance genes, but recent studies on senescence and chemotherapy have suggested that NF-kappaB activation is essential for chemotherapy induced senescence and tumor regression. The mechanisms underlying the contradictory observations are elusive. Here we show that site-differential phosphorylation of NF-kappaB RelA/p65 modulates chemosensitivity and results in distinct outcomes in cancer cells. Phospohrylation of RelA/p65 on Ser276, Ser536 and Ser468 were detected in RITA (reactivation of p53 and induction of tumor cell apoptosis) treated cells and RITA-resistant sublines, and they showed distinct dynamics. Ectopic expression of p65/S536D dramatically enhanced RITA sensitivity while the constitutively phosphorylated form of S276 (S276D) compromised RITA effects in treated cells. The constitutive phosphorylation of Ser468 (S468D) showed very mild effects on RITA sensitivity. In addition, p65/S536D resensitized RITA-resistant sublines to RITA treatment. P65/S536D also enhanced the doxorubicin sensitivity, but not paclitaxel in these multi-drug resistant sublines. ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are critical multidrug resistant factors. We found that in the RITA-resistant sublines, multiple ABC transporter genes were upregulated, particularly the ABCC6. Further studies dissected that ABCC6 was involved in site-specific phosphorylation- related chemoresistance. P65/S536D decreased ABCC6 expression and sensitized cells to doxorubicin and RITA, but not paclitaxel that is not the substrate of ABCC6 transporter. Conversely, p65/S276D enhanced chemoresistance by upregulating ABCC6. The p65/S536D enhanced RITA chemosensitivity is also confirmed in in vivo study using tumor xenografts in nude mice. Taken together, phosphorylation of p65 on Ser536 contributes to chemosensitivity by targeting ABCC6 while Ser276 leads to chemoresistance. These findings solve the controversial issues of NF-kappaB RelA/p65 in tumorigenesis and in chemosensitivity, and are important in developing NF-kappaB targeted cancer therapy, such as inhibitors. This study also highlights that better understanding of distinct active sites on NF-kappaB RelA/p65 is necessary for discussing the tumorigenic roles of NF-kappaB and developing efficient NF-kappaB targeted therapies.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a multifunctional cytokine produced primarily by activated monocytes/macrophages and by a variety of other cell types. IL-1 plays an integral role in the immuno-inflammatory response of the body to a variety of stimuli including infection, trauma and other bodily injuries. Once IL-1 is released from the synthesizing cell, it acts as a hormone, initializing a variety of responses in different cells and tissues. These responses are believed to be crucial to survival and are termed acute-phase responses. NF-κB is a family of dimeric transcription factors that control the expression of hundreds of genes which regulate cellular stress responses, cell division, apoptosis, and inflammation. NF-κB dwells in the cytoplasm of the cell until activation in response to a wide range of extracellular stimuli including signaling molecules such as cytokines. NF-κB regulates transcription and gene expression through nucleocytoplasmic transport. Most previous studies on NF-κB activation have been performed using bulk assays to look at populations of cells. Determining cell variance at a single-cell level is crucial in understanding the full mechanisms of drug response. The goal of this study is to analyze the effects of variant concentrations of IL-1β on the activation of NF-κB in individual cells through use of a microfluidic gradient generator. The gradient generator was adopted from Jeon et al and used principles of diffusive mixing and splitting of flows in order create a solute concentration gradient. A soft lithography procedure was used. Briefly, the design was printed on a transparency using a high resolution printer. A master of the design is then created using an SU-8 photoresist and UV light to imprint the design on a silicon wafer. The master is then used to create a Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) mold of the design which can be irreversibly attached to a glass slide through oxidation in order to close off the microfluidic channels. FITC-conjugated β-Casein (a protein with similar molecular weight to IL-1β) was used in order to verify the gradient generated by the design. The concentration gradient was analyzed by measuring fluorescent intensity of images taken under a UV light microscope and found to agree with microfluidic simulations run on COMSOL. A procedure for culturing cells in a microfluidic device was then adapted from Jeon that is explained in detail in Chapter 3. Two main trends were revealed; firstly, as IL-1β concentration decreased, the percent of cells activated also decreased. Secondly, as IL-1β concentration decreased, the activation time of the responding cells increased. Cells were observed to act in a single-cell manner; in which multiple cells subjected to the same concentration would not all respond in the same fashion. No major activation threshold was observed but two minor thresholds were; the first at 0.02 ng/mL IL-1β where activation levels drop from 20% to around 5%. The second around 1 ng/mL, in which all greater concentrations show nearly complete activation of all cells exposed. Of the cells that activated, the activation times were recorded and analyzed as well. In general, a decrease in IL-1β concentration caused cells to take longer to activate. Concentrations greater than 5 ng/mL responded on average in 30 minutes with a significant amount of variation. Between 5 ng/mL and 0.1 ng/mL, activation time increased as IL-1β concentration decreased in a linear fashion when concentration was plotted on a base-10 log scale. Below 0.1 ng/mL, the trend disappears and an average activation time of around 95 minutes is observed that no longer depended on concentration. This is interesting because fewer and fewer cells are activating in this concentration range but activation time follows no trend and remains partially stochastic with times ranging from 80 to 105 minutes. The previous results were all observed with a continuous flow and stimulation of the cells. Experiments were also run by only exposing the cells to the IL-1β for 10 minutes and then replacing the flow with a buffer. These studies yielded interesting results; the fraction of activated cells reported the same trends and values as those that were continuously stimulated. The activation times, however, were delayed between 10 and 20 minutes but otherwise followed the same trend as the continuous stimulation. These results suggest that a brief exposure to an external stimulant is all it takes for the cascade of intercellular events to take place and cause NF-κB translocation. / Master of Science

Apoptose, der programmierte Zelltod, spielt eine wichtige Rolle für das Gleichgewicht zwischen Proliferation und Sterben von Zellen und ist außerdem an der Beseitigung von infizierten und geschädigten Zellen beteiligt. Apoptose kann durch Stimulation von Rezeptoren aus der Familie der TNF-Rezeptoren wie CD95, ausgelöst werden. Nach Liganden-induzierter Trimerisierung der Rezeptoren bindet FADD an den zytoplasmatischen Teil des Rezeptors und rekrutiert Caspase-8 und/oder -10. Die räumliche Nähe der Caspasen in diesem als DISC bezeichneten Komplex führt zu ihrer auto- und transkatalytischen Spaltung und damit Aktivierung. Dadurch wird das apoptotische Programm gestartet, welches zum Tod der Zelle führt. Kontrolliert wird dieser Vorgang von einer Vielzahl anti-apoptotischer Proteine. Störungen in diesem System sind an der Entstehung einer Reihe von Krankheiten beteiligt. Die Blockade der Apoptoseinduktion kann zur Entstehung von Tumoren beitragen. Das klassische Hodgkin Lymphom ist eine maligne Erkrankung des lymphatischen Systems. Die Tumorzellen sind große, einkernige Hodgkin- oder mehrkernige Reed/Sternbergzellen (HRS-Zellen). Sie leiten sich von Keimzentrum-B-Zellen ab. In HRS-Zellen fehlt die Expression einer Vielzahl von typischen B-Zellmarkern, darunter die des B-Zellrezeptors. Solche B-Zellen sterben normalerweise während der Keimzentrumsreaktion durch Apoptose. An diesem Prozess ist CD95 beteiligt. In einer Reihe von malignen Erkrankungen wurden eine Herunterregulation der CD95-Expression oder Mutationen im CD95-Gen beobachtet. Es wird daher vermutet, dass CD95-induzierte Apoptose zur Entfernung von Tumorzellen beiträgt. Im Gegensatz dazu exprimieren sowohl primäre HRS-Zellen als auch etablierte HRS-Zelllinien in der Regel Wildtyp-CD95, sind aber trotzdem CD95-resistent. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass Komponenten des CD95-Systems, im Gegensatz zu anderen malignen Erkrankungen, in den HRS-Zellen hochreguliert sind, darunter CD95 selbst. In immunpräzipitierten DISCs von CD95-stimulierten HRS-Zellen wurde neben FADD und Caspase-8/-10 auch c-FLIP nachgewiesen. c-FLIP ist ein Caspase-8/-10-Homolog, das ebenfalls an FADD bindet, aber aufgrund fehlender katalytischer Aktivität die Aktivierung der Caspasen im DISC und damit die Apoptoseinduktion verhindert. Eine starke c-FLIP-Expression konnte in allen HRS-Zelllinien und in den HRS-Zellen nahezu aller untersuchter primärer Hodgkinfälle (55/59) gezeigt werden. Durch siRNA-vermittelte Herunterregulation von c-FLIP war es möglich, HRS-Zelllinien gegenüber CD95-induzierter Apoptose zu sensitivieren. Dies zeigt, dass die CD95-Rezeptor-induzierte Apoptose in den HRS-Zellen nicht strukturell, sondern funktionell inhibiert ist und c-FLIP stark zu dieser Inhibition beiträgt. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass die c-FLIP-Expression in den HRS-Zellen von der konstitutiven Aktivität des Transkriptionsfaktors NF-κB abhängt, die charakteristisch für diese Zellen ist. Normalerweise wird NF-κB von Inhibitorproteinen, den IκBs, im Zytoplasma zurückgehalten. Diverse Stimuli können den IKK-Komplex aktivieren, der die IκBs an bestimmten Serinresten phosphoryliert. Dies hat die Ubiquitinylierung und den Abbau der IκBs zur Folge, wodurch NF-κB frei wird, in den Kern wandert und dort seine Zielgene aktiviert. Es wird angenommen, dass in HRS-Zellen ein konstitutiv aktiver IKK-Komplex und teilweise Mutationen der IκB-Proteine zur konstitutiven NF-κB-Aktivität beitragen. Zu den NF-κB-abhängigen Genen in den HRS-Zellen gehören solche mit anti-apoptotischer und Zellzyklus-treibender Wirkung. Die Inhibition der NF-κB-Aktivität in den HRS-Zellen führt zu Apoptose und eingeschränkter Proliferation. Von dreiwertigem Arsen ist bekannt, dass es die Induzierbarkeit des IKK-Komplexes inhibieren kann und damit letztendlich die Aktivierung von NF-κB. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass Arsen in HRS-Zellen den konstitutiv aktiven IKK-Komplex inhibiert. In Zelllinien mit intakten IκB-Proteinen führte dies zur NF-κB-Inhibition und Apoptoseinduktion. Die Reduktion der NF-κB-Aktivität ging mit der Herunterregulation von anti-apoptotischen und Proliferations-fördernden Zielgenen einher. Die ektope Überexpression von NF-κB hob die Apoptose-induzierende Wirkung von Arsen teilweise auf. Durch Arsen-Behandlung von Mäusen konnte das Tumorwachstum xenotransplantierter HRS-Zellen stark verlangsamt werden. In explantierten Tumorzellen konnte ebenfalls eine NF-κB-Inhibition nachgewiesen werden. Die NF-κB-Inhibition durch Arsen trägt also stark zur Apoptoseinduktion in den HRS-Zellen bei. Zusammengefasst zeigen die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit, dass die Modulation der Apoptoseresistenz neue therapeutische Ansätze für die Behandlung des Hodgkin Lymphoms bieten könnte. Der Einsatz von Arsen ist dabei besonders interessant, da Arsen schon für die Behandlung anderer maligner Erkrankungen eingesetzt wird. / Apoptosis, the programmed cell death, is important for the balance between proliferation and dying of cells. It is also involved in the removal of infected and damaged cells. Apoptosis can be induced by stimulation of receptors of the TNF-receptor family like CD95. After ligand-induced trimerisation of these receptors, FADD binds to the cytoplasmic part of the receptor and recruits Caspase-8 and/or -10. The induced proximity of the caspases in this complex, called DISC, leads to their auto- and transcatalytic cleavage and subsequently to their activation. This starts the apoptotic program which leads to the death of the cell. A number of anti-apoptotic proteins control this process. The deregulation of this system is involved in a variety of diseases. The disruption of the apoptotic program can contribute to the development of tumors. Classical Hodgkin Lymphoma is a malignant disease of the lymphatic system, characterized by mononucleated Hodgkin or multinucleated Reed/Sternberg (HRS) cells. These tumor cells are derived from germinal-center B-cells. However, HRS cells lack the expression of typical B cell markers, such as the B-cell receptor. Usually, B-cells without B-cell receptor expression die by apoptosis during the germinal-center reaction. CD95 is involved in this process. It has been shown previously that in many malignant diseases CD95 is down-regulated or mutated, indicating that CD95 is involved in the removal of tumor cells. In opposite to these findings, primary HRS cells and Hodgkin-derived cell lines usually express wild type CD95, but are resistant to CD95 induced apoptosis. In this work, it could be demonstrated that in contrast to other malignant diseases components of the CD95 system are up-regulated in HRS cells, including CD95 itself. By immunoprecipitation it was shown that, in addition to FADD and Caspase-8/-10, c-FLIP is a component of the DISC in CD95-stimulated cells. c-FLIP is a caspase homolog which, like caspases, binds to FADD, but lacks proteolytic activity. It inhibits the activation of caspases in the DISC and thus prevents apoptosis induction. A strong c-FLIP expression was shown in all HRS cell lines and in HRS cells of nearly all investigated primary cases of Hodgkin Lymphoma (55/59). siRNA-mediated (small interfering RNA) down-regulation of c-FLIP sensitized HRS cell lines to CD95-induced apoptosis. This shows that the CD95 receptor-induced apoptosis in HRS cells is not structurally but functionally inhibited and that c-FLIP strongly contributes to this inhibition. In addition, it was shown that c-FLIP expression depends on the constitutive activity of the transcription factor NF-κB which is characteristic for HRS cells. Usually, NF-κB is sequestered in the cytoplasm by inhibitor proteins, the IκBs. A variety of stimuli can activate the IKK-complex which subsequently phosphorylates the IκBs, leading to their ubiquitinylation and degradation. The released NF-κB translocates to the nucleus where it activates the transcription of target genes. It is supposed that a constitutively activated IKK complex and, in some cases, mutated IκB proteins contribute to the constitutive NF-κB activity in HRS cells. To the NF-κB dependent genes in HRS cells belong those with anti-apoptotic and cell cycle promoting activities. Inhibition of the NF-κB activity in HRS cells leads to apoptosis and decreased proliferation. Trivalent arsenic is known to inhibit the induction of the IKK complex and thus the activation of NF-κB. In this work, it was shown that arsenic inhibits the constitutively active IKK complex in HRS cells. This led to an inhibition of NF-κB and induction of apoptosis in HRS cell lines with non-mutated IκB proteins. The NF-κB inhibition was accompanied by the down-regulation of anti-apoptotic and cell cycle promoting genes. Ectopic overexpression of NF-κB partially reverted the apoptotic effect of arsenic. Treatment of mice with arsenic reduced the growth of subcutaneously xenotransplanted HRS cells. In explanted tumor cells, a reduced NF-κB activity could be demonstrated following treatment with arsenic. Thus, the inhibition of NF-κB by arsenic contributes to the induction of apoptosis in HRS cells. Taken together, the results indicate that modulation of the apoptosis resistance may offer new strategies for the treatment of Hodgkin Lymphoma. Of particular interest is the application of arsenic because it is already used in the treatment of other malignant disorders.

La mucoviscidose (Cystic Fibrosis, CF) est caractérisée par une symptomatologie variée, dominée par la gravité de l'atteinte pulmonaire et une réponse inflammatoire inadaptée. Elle est due à des mutations du gène CFTR codant un canal chlorure AMPc-dépendant à la surface des cellules épithéliales. L'inflammation des voies aériennes de type neutrophilique est caractérisée au niveau cellulaire par une surproduction de cytokines pro-inflammatoires telles que l'interleukine-8 (IL-8) et une activation anormale des facteurs de transcription impliqués dans les voies de signalisation de l'inflammation comme NF-κB, AP-1 et PPARγ.Notre projet est d'identifier des agents à effet anti-inflammatoire dans le contexte de la mucoviscidose et d'en décrypter les mécanismes d'action. Nous avons pour cela étudié l'effet de molécules anti-inflammatoires avec une autorisation de mise sur le marché mais jamais testées pour la mucoviscidose et l'effet de COMMD1 une protéine pléïotropique impliquée dans l'inhibition de l'inflammation et identifiée au laboratoire pour interagir avec CFTR.Dans un premier temps nous avons montré l'activité anti-inflammatoire de COMMD1 dans le contexte de la mucoviscidose via son action anti-NF-κB. Dans un second temps nous avons montré que le sulindac et l'amlexanox permettent de moduler des facteurs dérégulés dans des cellules CF. Ces molécules inhibent l'activité de NF-κB et activent PPARγ. Le sulindac permet de diminuer la sécrétion d'IL-8 in vitro sur des cellules épithéliales bronchiques et in vivo sur modèles d'inflammation pulmonaire murin. De plus nous avons montré que le sulindac augmente le transport des ions chlorures via CFTR sur des cellules épithéliales nasales humaines non CF suggérant que le sulindac a un double effet anti-inflammatoire et potentiateur.Ce projet de recherche nous a permis de proposer de nouveaux candidats pour les thérapies anti-inflammatoires dans la mucoviscidose et d'initier l'étude de leur mécanisme d'action. / Cystic fibrosis (CF) is characterized by a varied symptomatology dominated by the lung injury severity and inappropriate inflammatory response. It is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene that encodes a cAMP-dependent chloride channel on the surface of epithelial cells. Airway inflammation with neutrphilic profil is characterised by increased Interleukine-8 (IL-8) secretion with dysregulation of transcription factors implicated in the inflammatory pathway such as NF-κB, AP-1 and PPARγ.Our aim is to evaluate agents with anti-inflammatory effect in CF context and to decrypt their mechanisms of action. We have study the effect of anti-inflammatory FDA approved drugs having a yet undefined effect in CF airway epithelial cells and the effect of COMMD1 a pleiotropic protein involved in the inhibition of inflammation and identified in the laboratory to interact with CFTR.In a first time we have shown the anti-inflammatory activity of COMMD1 mediated by its anti-NF-kB activity in the CF context. In a second time we have shown that sulindac and amlexanox can modulate factors dysgulated in CF cells. Both inhibit NF-κB and activate PPARγ. Sulindac reduces IL-8 secretion in vitro on airway epithelial cells and in vivo in mouse model of lung inflammation. Additionally, sulindac increases CFTR-dependent chloride currents in non-CF primary human nasal epithelial cells suggesting that sulindac has a dual anti-inflammatory and potentiator effect.This research has allowed us to propose good anti-inflammatory agents for CF context and to initiate the study of their molecular targets.

Le lymphome diffus à grandes cellules B (DLBCL, Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma) constitue le lymphome non Hodgkinien le plus fréquemment diagnostiqué. Les DLBCL sont composés principalement de deux sous groupes : l’entité nommée ABC (Activated B Cell-like) qui est la plus agressive, avec un taux de survie de 30% après traitement, et l’entité GCB (Germinal-Center B Cell). Contrairement aux GCB DLBCL, les ABC DLBCL se caractérisent par une signature génique similaire aux lymphocytes B activés par leur récepteur antigénique (BCR, B Cell Receptor) à cause de l'accumulation de mutations génétiques. Ceci a pour conséquence une activation constitutive du facteur de transcription NF-κB pour laquelle les lymphomes ABC DLBCL ont développé une profonde addiction. Toutefois, la nature pléiotrope de NF-κB rend son ciblage thérapeutique inenvisageable. Mon projet de thèse visait à caractériser de nouveaux régulateurs de la voie d’activation du facteur NF-κB par les récepteurs antigéniques en condition physiologique et pathologique. Dans un premier temps, grâce à un crible protéomique par spectrométrie de masse, nous avons identifié un complexe ternaire nommé LUBAC (Linear Ubiquitin Chain Assembly Complex) comme un acteur majeur de l’activation de NF-κB par le TCR et le BCR, et de la survie des lymphomes ABC DLBCL. Dans un second temps, le crible d’une librairie de mille deux cents molécules chimiques nous a permis d’isoler un composé sélectivement toxique in vitro pour les lymphomes ABC DLBCL. Nous montrons que ce composé entraine la mort apoptotique des ABC DLBCL sans toutefois affecter la signalisation NF-κB. Un tel composé pourrait, dans le futur, être utilisé comme une nouvelle molécule thérapeutique pour le traitement du lymphome ABC DLBCL. / The diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common non Hodgkinien lymphoma. Two main different entities composed the DLBCL : the Activated B Cell-like subtype (ABC DLBCL) witch is the most aggressive and associated with a poor survival prognostic, and the Germinal-Center B Cell subtype (GCB DLBCL). Unlike the GCB DLBCL, ABC DLBCL are characterized by a genetic signature similar to activated B lymphocytes stimulated by their antigen receptor (BCR, B cell receptor) which results from mutations accumulation. As a consequence, ABC DLBCL survival and proliferation requires the constitutive activation of NF-κB transcription factors. Because NF-κB has pleiotropic effect on different tissues, strategies aiming at targeting NF-κB heterodimers might have deleterious consequences on an organism.My project focuses on identifying new modulators involved in antigen receptor mediated NF-κB activation in physiological and pathological condition.We first performed a mass spectrometry analysis and identified the LUBAC (Linear Ubiquitin Chain Assembly Complex) as a new regulator of antigen receptor mediated a NF-κB ctivation and ABC DLBCL survival. Then, we screened a library of one thousand two hundred chemical compounds on DLBCL viability and identified one compound selectively toxic in vitro for the ABC DLBCL subtype. This compound induced ABC DLBCL apoptosis without affected NF-κB signaling. In the future, this compound could be used as a new therapeutic compound for ABC DLBCL.

<p>The fruit fly <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> has been a powerful model system in which to study the immune response. When microorganisms breach the mechanical barrier of the insect, phagocytosing cells and a battery of induced antimicrobial molecules rapidly attack them. These antimicrobial peptides can reach micromolar concentrations within a few hours. This immediate response is reminiscent of the mammalian innate immune response and utilizes transcription factors of the NF-κB family. </p><p>We have generated loss-of-function mutants of the NF-κB-like transcription factor Relish in order to investigate Relish's role in the <i>Drosophila</i> immune response to microbes. Relish mutant flies have a severely impaired immune response to Gram-negative (G^-) bacteria and some Gram-positive (G⁺) bacteria and fungi and succumb to an otherwise harmless infection. The main reason for the high susceptibility to infection is that these mutant flies fail to induce the antimicrobial peptide genes. The cellular responses appear to be normal. </p><p>Relish is retained in the cytoplasm in an inactive state. We designed a set of expression plasmids to investigate the requirements for activation of Relish in a hemocyte cell line after stimulation with bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Signal-induced phosphorylation of Relish followed by endoproteolytic processing at the caspase-like target motif in the linker region released the inhibitory ankyrin-repeat (ANK) domain from the DNA binding Rel homology domain (RHD). Separation from the ANK domain allowed the RHD to move into the nucleus and initiate transcription of target genes like those that encode the inducible antimicrobial peptides, likely by binding to κB-like sites in the promoter region. </p><p>By studying the immune response of the Relish mutant flies in combination with mutants for another NF-κB-like protein, Dorsal-related immunity factor (Dif), we found that the <i>Drosophila</i> immune system can distinguish between various microbes and generate a differential response by activating the Toll/Dif and Imd/Relish pathways. The recognition of foreign microorganisms is believed to occur through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that have affinity for selective pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). We found that the <i>Drosophila</i> PRRs can recognize G^- bacteria as a group. Interestingly, the PRRs are specific enough to distinguish between peptidoglycans from G⁺ bacteria such as <i>Micrococcus luteus</i> and <i>Bacillus megaterium </i>and fungal PAMPs from <i>Beauveria bassiana</i> and <i>Geotrichum candidum</i>. </p><p>This thesis also investigates the expression of the antimicrobial peptide genes, <i>Diptericin B</i> and <i>Attacin C</i>, and the putative intracellular antimicrobial peptide gene <i>Attacin D</i>, and explores a potential evolutionary link between them.</p>

Our recent studies have shown that that erectile dysfunction (ED) drugs including Sildenafil (Viagra), Vardenafil (Levitra) and Tadalafil (Cialis) enhance killing of several types of cancer cells by anticancer drug, Doxorubicin (DOX). We observed increased cell death by apoptosis in response to the combined treatment with ED drugs and DOX. However, the mechanism of such enhancement of cell death by combined treatment of ED drugs and DOX is not fully understood. Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is an oxidant-sensitive transcription factor that plays a critical role in the immediate-early activation of a multitude of genes that have been documented to play critical role in programmed cell death (apoptosis). NF-κB activation has been shown to block apoptosis and its inhibition improves existing anti-oncogenic therapy such as chemotherapy. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis whether combined treatment of prostate cancer cells, PC3, with Sildenafil plus DOX would attenuate the activation of NFκB by inhibiting translocation of the p65 and p50 subunits to the nucleus and by phosphorylation of cytosolic IκB In addition, we investigated the effect of DOX and DOX plus Sildenafil on the expression of BCL family of proteins which play critical role in apoptosis. We treated PC3 cells with 1.5 μM DOX with or without 10 µM Sildenafil for 6 hours and 72 hours. The nuclear translocation of p65 and p50 and expression of BCL family of proteins was determined by western blot analysis. Our results show that combined treatment of DOX and Sildenafil significantly reduced the nuclear translocation of p65 and p50 as compared with DOX alone (P < 0.05). This correlated with the significant reduction in the expression of Bcl-2, BclxL and phosphorylation of BAD. These data provide an important mechanism by which Sildenafil treatment augments the apoptotic potential of DOX in PC3 cancer cells.

Gestörte Proliferations- und Differenzierungsprozesse in Keratinozyten spielen eine wichtige Rolle in der Pathogenese vieler Hauterkrankungen. Intrazelluläre Signalmechanismen, die die korrekte Balance zwischen epidermaler Proliferation und Differenzierung aufrecht halten, sind bis jetzt größtenteils unbekannt. Einer dieser ausschlaggebenden Transkriptionsfaktoren ist der Nukleäre Faktor-kappaB (NF-kB). Uns interessierte der Einfluss des IKK/IkBa/NF-kB-Signalweges auf das intrinsische Differenzierungsprogramm von Keratinozyten. Mittels retroviraler Infektion wurden sowohl in primären Keratinozyten als auch in HaCaT verschieden mutante Formen von Faktoren des NF-kB-Signalweges eingebracht: dominant negative (dn) Formen der IKK1 und IKK2, eine konstitutiv aktive Form der IKK2 (IKK2 EE) und eine nicht-degradierbare Form des Inhibitors IkBa. Zusätzlich wurden auch pharmakologische Inhibitoren von NF-kB (BAY 11-7082 und SC-514) untersucht. Die Funktionalität der Mutanten wurde im Westernblot durch Analyse der IkBa Degradation überprüft. Anschließend wurde die Differenzierung der Keratinozyten durch Erhöhung des extrazellulären Calciums induziert. Der Grad der Differenzierung wurde durch morphologische Studien und Untersuchung der Expression der Differenzierungs-marker p21 und Involucrin untersucht. Im Gegensatz zu Ergebnissen aus Tiermodellen, konnten wir keine Effekte der mutierten IkB Kinasen 1 und 2 auf die Calcium-induzierte in vitro Differenzierung beobachten. Jedoch wurde die Aktivierung inflammatorischer Gene, gemessen an der Induktion von ICAM-1 und IL-8 nach TNF-a Stimulation, vollständig in den IKK2 KD und mut IkBa exprimierenden Zellen inhibiert. In der Zelllinie, welche die entsprechende IKK1 Mutante trug, wurde deren Expression nur teilweise geblockt. Zusammenfassend lässt sich aus unseren Ergebnissen schließen, dass zumindest in vitro IKK1 und IKK2 nicht an der Regulation des Calcium-induzierten intrinsischen Differen-zierungsprozesses von Keratinozyten beteiligt sind, jedoch eine zentrale Rolle in der inflammatorischen Aktivierung dieser Zellen spielen. / Disturbed proliferation and differentiation processes of keratinocytes play a major role in the pathogenesis of many skin diseases. Intracellular signalling mechanisms which regulate the balance between epidermal proliferation and differentiation, however, are thus far largely unknown. Earlier reports suggest a role for the transcription factor nuclear factor–kappaB (NF-kB) in such processes. Here we attempted to analyze the impact of the IKK/IkBa/NF-kB signalling pathway on the intrinsic differentiation process of keratinocytes. Primary human keratinocytes as well as HaCaT cells were retrovirally infected to express different mutant forms of components of the IKK/NF-kB pathway: dominant negative (dn) mutants of NF-kB upstream kinases IKK1 and IKK2, a constitutive active form of IKK2 (IKK2 EE), and a non degradable mutant form of IkBa. In addition, pharmacological inhibitors of the pathway such as BAY 11-7082 and SC-514 were analysed. Proper functionality of the generated mutants was subsequently confirmed by Western blot analysis monitoring induced IkBa degradation. Thereafter, differentiation of keratinocytes was induced by elevation of extracellular calcium levels. The differentiation state of keratinocytes was then assessed by studying morphology and expression of differentiation markers such as p21 as well as involucrin. In contrast to data reported from animal models, we could not detect any effects of mutated IKK1 or IKK2 on the calcium-induced intrinsic differentiation program in keratinocytes. However, inflammatory activation of keratinocytes as measured by TNF-a-mediated up-regulation of ICAM-1 and IL-8 was almost completely inhibited in cells expressing dn IKK2 and the IkBa mutant form whereas it was only partly blocked in IKK1dn cells. In conclusion, our data suggest that, in least in vitro, IKK1 and IKK2 are not involved in the regulation of calcium-induced keratinocyte differentiation while they are pivotal for inflammatory activation of these cells.

Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is commonly found in the nasopharynx of healthy individuals, yet it can be a serious pathogen, particularly in the lower respiratory tract, where it can cause severe pneumonia. During pneumococcal pneumonia, anti-bacterial host defense requires the orchestrated expression of innate immunity mediators, initiated by alveolar macrophages and dependent on transcriptional activity driven by Nuclear Factor-𝜅B (NF-𝜅B). Although the initiation of a pulmonary inflammatory response is critical to anti-pneumococcal defense during pneumonia, how differences in pneumococcal-macrophage interactions can influence this process is unclear. To determine the functional significance of varying macrophage NF-𝜅B activation, we examined macrophage responses to pneumococcal stimulation in culture and in mice. Macrophage-pneumococcal interactions resulted in the induction of varied NF-𝜅B activation. Two main pathways were revealed regarding host response and disease outcome. Pneumococci that induced efficient macrophage NF-𝜅B activation resulted in robust anti-pneumococcal lung defense and bacterial clearance. Conversely, failure to activate effective macrophage NF-𝜅B signaling resulted in an altered macrophage response of necroptosis. Overall, we conclude that varying levels of macrophage NF-𝜅B activation by pneumococcus can directly influence the severity of infection. Furthermore, inefficient macrophage NF-𝜅B activation can also have cytotoxic effects on these critical lung resident cells during pneumonia. The induction of macrophage NF-𝜅B activation by S. pneumoniae is as diverse as the population of pneumococcal isolates in the community. A unique host-pathogen interaction exists between pneumococcus and the alveolar macrophage that plays an important role in anti-pneumococcal defense during pneumonia and in the prevention of cytotoxic consequences induced by virulent pneumococci. This interaction suggests that therapies, which modulate NF-𝜅B activation, hold promise for augmenting resistance and ameliorating deleterious effects during pneumococcal pneumonia that could lead to the development of severe disease.