Preclinical results support the use of N-methyl D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) modulators for cognition enhancement therapeutics. Pregnenolone sulfate (PregS) is a neuroactive steroid derived from cholesterol that augments long term potentiation (LTP) in hippocampal slices and improves memory performance in rats and mice. At micromolar concentrations, PregS is a subtype selective positive allosteric modulator of NMDARs at NR2A and NR2B containing receptors, and at concentrations ranging from pM - nM induces NMDAR-dependent dopamine release in the striatum and from striatal synaptosomes. In this report, we observe that micromolar [PregS] induces an increase in levels of neuronal intracellular calcium ([Ca^2+]i) and surface NMDARs in cortical neurons. Moreover, our results show that PregS stimulated upregulation of surface NR1 subunits in cortical neurons is dependent on NMDARs but independent of channel activity. As PregS has been detected in brain at bulk concentrations of 0.1 nM to 5 nM, we asked whether low, picomolar concentrations of PregS might alter [Ca^2+] levels. We report here that PregS increases [Ca^2+]i signal in cortical neurons in a voltage-gated Na^+ channel and NMDAR-NR2B dependent manner with an EC50 of ~2 pM, at least 6 orders of magnitude higher affinity than its rapid potentiating effect upon the NMDAR-mediated ionotropic response, and within the range of PregS detected in bulk brain tissue. Additionally, calcium (Ca^2+) activation of cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) is critical to the protein synthesis-dependent component of LTP and important in associated behavioral measures of learning and memory. Increased [Ca^2+]i levels are known to induce CREB activation and we now show that 50 pM PregS induces a 44 ± 13% increase in the ratio of pCREB to total CREB that is dependent upon ERK signaling and canonical excitatory synaptic transmission: this includes voltage gated Na+ channels, NMDARs, and voltage-gated Ca^2+ channel activation. The results taken together indicate that PregS may be a useful platform for the development of high-affinity positive modulators of NMDAR-signaling that can be used as cognitive enhancers to treat a variety of neurological disorders: such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and schizophrenia.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Parkinson disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. It is characterized by loss of dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra, which causes loss of dopaminergic synapses onto striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). Dendritic spines that are localized to these striatal MSNs receive synaptic inputs from both the nigral dopamine neurons and cortical glutamate neurons. Signaling downstream of excitatory, glutamatergic drive is modulated by dopamine. This tripartite connection: glutamate, dopamine, and MSN dendritic spine, is important for normal motor function. Glutamate released from presynaptic terminals binds to and activates two classes of inotropic glutamate receptors that are localized to dendritic spines on striatal MSNs: the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) and the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). Once these receptors are activated, they allow for Ca2+ influx, which in turn activates Ca2+-dependent processes that underlie neural plasticity, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). Proper machinery in the pre- and post-synaptic neurons is required for normal signal transduction. Moreover, this signal transduction requires proper organization of synaptic proteins, which is achieved by specific protein-protein interactions. These protein-protein interactions are dynamic and can be modulated under various conditions, including pathological changes in the phosphorylation status of a specific protein. Catalytically active proteins called phosphatases and kinases specifically regulate the phosphorylation status of synaptic proteins. Pathologically, in PD there is increased autophosphorylation and activation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). This increased phosphorylation may be due to changes in the activity of the serine/threonine protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), a highly conserved protein serine/threonine phosphatase that has a diverse set of functions in eukaryotes. Serine/threonine phosphatase substrate specificity is obtained via interactions with targeting and regulatory proteins. One such protein, spinophilin, is a scaffolding protein that targets PP1 to various synaptic substrates to regulate their phosphorylation. Interestingly, the association of PP1 with spinophilin is enhanced in a rat model of PD. The NMDAR is another protein that has altered phosphorylation in animal models of PD. We have found that there is a decrease in the NMDAR-spinophilin interaction in an animal model of PD. Here, we have found that spinophilin and the NMDAR interact in brain tissue and when overexpressed in a mammalian cell system. Moreover, we have identified novel mechanisms that regulate this interaction and have identified putative consequences of altering this association. These studies give us novel insight into mechanisms and consequences underlying pathological changes observed in an animal model of PD. Understanding these changes will inform novel therapeutic targets that may be useful in modulating striatal function.

The somatosensory corticothalamic (CT) circuit processes ascending sensory signals, and disruption to the balance of excitation and inhibition (E/I) within CT circuitry leads to absence seizures, sleep disorders, and attention deficits. E/I balance may be restored by independently modulating excitatory CT input to the ventral posteromedial (VPM) thalamus and inhibitory input to the VPM through the CT-thalamic reticular nucleus (nRT)-VPM pathway. This work revealed novel N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) nucleus-specific and frequency-dependent functional diversity in the somatosensory CT circuit. Specifically, these findings illustrate the different effects of NMDAR negative modulation in the nRT and the VPM, which offers a method to preferentially decrease high frequency excitatory CT input to the VPM while having no significant effect on nRT activity. These results demonstrate the potential of utilizing NMDAR selective modulators to decrease overall excitation within the somatosensory CT circuit. Further investigation is required to elucidate the precise mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, including where NMDARs are localized at CT synapses and the effect of positive NMDAR modulators on nRT and VPM activity. / Master of Science / The sensory gating mechanism helps our brain to select essential sensory information to process. Impairment of this sensory gating has been reported in epilepsy, schizophrenia, and autism. The somatosensory corticothalamic (CT) circuit oversea the sensory gating process by adjusting how much excitation and inhibition signals are integrated into the thalamus. Disruption of the balance of excitation and inhibition (E/I) within CT circuitry leads to the absence seizures, sleep disorders, and attention deficits. Our work revealed one of the glutamate receptors N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), has nucleus-specific and frequency-dependent functional diversity in the somatosensory CT circuit. By targeting the different NMDAR subunits in the circuit, we were able to preferentially decrease high-frequency excitatory input to the thalamus while having no significant effect on inhibitory input. These results offer the potential to utilize NMDAR selective modulators to decrease overall excitation within the somatosensory CT circuit, which is useful to restore the disrupted E/I balance in the thalamus from a variety of neurological diseases. Further investigation is required to elucidate the precise mechanisms underlying this phenomenon.

Injury causes increased pain sensation in humans and animals but the mechanisms underlying the emergence of persistent pathological pain states, which arise in the absence of on-going physical damage, are unclear. Therefore, elucidating the physiological regulation of such intractable pain is of exceptional biomedical importance. It is well known that endogenous activation of µ-opioid receptors (MORs) provides relief from acute pain but the consequences of prolonged endogenous opioidergic signaling have not been considered. Here we test the hypothesis that the intrinsic mechanisms of MOR signaling promote pathological sensitization of pain circuits in the spinal cord. We found that tissue inflammation produces agonist-independent MOR signaling in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, which tonically represses hyperalgesia for months, even after complete recovery from injury and re-established normal pain thresholds. Disruption of this constitutive activity with MOR inverse agonists reinstated pain and precipitated cellular, somatic and aversive signs of physical withdrawal. This phenomenon required N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation of calcium-sensitive adenylyl cyclase type 1. Thus, we present a novel mechanism of long-lasting opioid analgesia that regulates the transition from acute to chronic pain while, in parallel, generates physical dependence. In conclusion we propose that the prevalence of chronic pain syndromes may result from a failure in constitutive signaling of spinal MORs and a loss of endogenous analgesic control.

Dados pré-clínicos e clínicos indicam que o canabidiol (CBD), um composto não-psicotomimético presente na planta Cannabis sativa, induz efeitos tipo-antipsicóticos. No entanto, poucos estudos em animais de laboratório investigaram as propriedades antipsicóticas do tratamento repetido com CBD. As alterações comportamentais induzidas pelo tratamento repetido com antagonistas dos receptores glutamatérgicos do tipo N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA) têm sido propostas como um modelo animal de esquizofrenia. Evidências sugerem que uma hipofunção dos receptores NMDA estaria envolvida nos sintomas positivos, bem como nos sintomas negativos e cognitivos da esquizofrenia. Assim, no presente estudo, nós avaliamos se o tratamento repetido com CBD atenuaria as alterações comportamentais e moleculares induzidas pela administração crônica de um desses antagonistas, o MK-801. Camundongos C57BL/6J receberam injeções intraperitoneais diárias de MK-801 (0,1, 0,5 ou 1 mg/kg) durante 14, 21 ou 28 dias. Vinte e quatro horas após a última injeção, os animais foram submetidos ao teste de inibição pelo pré-pulso (PPI). Posteriormente, foi avaliado se o tratamento repetido com CBD (15, 30 e 60 mg/kg) atenuaria o prejuízo no teste de PPI induzido pelo MK-801 (1 mg/kg; por 28 dias). O tratamento com CBD iniciou-se no sexto dia após o início da administração de MK-801 e continuou até o final do tratamento. Nós também avaliamos se o tratamento com CBD atenuaria as alterações comportamentais induzidas pelo MK-801 nos testes de interação social e reconhecimento de objeto. Imediatamente após os testes comportamentais, os cérebros dos animais foram removidos e processados para posterior avaliação de alterações moleculares. Foram avaliadas as alterações na expressão das proteínas FosB/FosB e parvalbumina, um marcador de atividade neuronal e uma proteína de ligação ao cálcio expressa em uma subclasse de interneurônios GABAérgicos, respectivamente. Alterações na expressão do RNAm para o gene da subunidade obrigatória GluN1 do receptor NMDA (GRN1) também foram avaliadas. Adicionalmente, um número crescente de estudos indica que condições neuroinflamatórias e células gliais, como microglia e astrócitos, parecem estar envolvidas na patogênese da esquizofrenia. E, devido ao fato que o CBD, além de suas propriedades antipsicóticas, também induz efeitos anti-inflamatórios e neuroprotetores, nós também avaliamos possíveis alterações na expressão de NeuN (um marcador neuronal), Iba-1 (um marcador de microglia) e GFAP (um marcador de astrócitos) induzidas pelos tratamentos. Os efeitos do CBD foram comparados àqueles induzidos pelo antipsicótico atípico clozapina. A administração de MK-801, na dose de 1 mg/kg, por 28 dias induziu um prejuízo no teste de PPI, um efeito atenuado pelo tratamento repetido com CBD (30 e 60 mg/kg). Adicionalmente, o CBD também foi capaz de atenuar os prejuízos nos testes de interação social e reconhecimento de objeto induzidos pelo MK-801. Além das alterações comportamentais, o tratamento repetido com MK-801 aumentou a expressão da proteína FosB/FosB e diminuiu a expressão da parvalbumina no córtex pré-frontal medial (CPFm). Uma diminuição da expressão do mRNA para GRN1 no hipocampo também foi observada. O tratamento com MK-801 resultou ainda em aumento no número de astrócitos GFAP-positivos no CPFm e na porcentagem de células microgliais Iba-1-positivas apresentando um fenótipo reativo no CPFm e hipocampo dorsal, mas sem alterar o número total de células Iba-1-positivas. Nenhuma alteração no número de células NeuN-positivas foi observada. Assim como para as alterações comportamentais, as alterações moleculares induzidas pelo MK-801 também foram atenuadas pelo CBD. Entretanto, o CBD por si só não induziu qualquer efeito. Além disso, os efeitos do CBD foram semelhantes àqueles induzidos pelo tratamento repetido com clozapina. Estes resultados indicam que o tratamento repetido com o CBD, semelhante à clozapina, atenuou as alterações comportamentais tipo-esquizofrenia e as alterações moleculares observadas após a administração repetida de um antagonista dos receptores NMDA. Estes dados reforçam a proposta de que o CBD possui propriedades antipsicóticas. Embora os possíveis mecanismos de ação envolvidos nesses efeitos não estejam completamente elucidados, eles poderiam envolver as propriedades antiinflamatórias e neuroprotetoras do CBD. Além disso, nossos dados suportam a visão de que a inibição da microglia ativada pode ser benéfica para a melhora dos sintomas da esquizofrenia / Preclinical and clinical data suggest that cannabidiol (CBD), a major non-psychotomimetic compound from Cannabis sativa, induces antipsychotic-like effects. However, the antipsychotic properties of repeated CBD treatment have been poorly investigated. Behavioral changes induced by repeated treatment with glutamate NMDA receptor antagonists have been proposed as an animal model of schizophrenia-like symptoms. Evidence suggests that NMDA receptor hypofunction could be involved, in addition to the positive, also to the negative symptoms and cognitive deficits found in schizophrenia patients. In the present study we evaluated if repeated treatment with CBD would attenuate the behavioral and molecular changes induced by chronic administration of one of these antagonists, MK-801. Male C57BL/6J mice received daily intraperitoneal injections of MK-801 (0.1, 0.5 or 1 mg/kg) for 14, 21 or 28 days. Twenty-four hours after the last injection animals were submitted to the prepulse inhibition (PPI) test. After that, we investigated if repeated treatment with CBD (15, 30 and 60 mg/kg) would attenuate the PPI impairment induced by chronic treatment with MK-801 (1 mg/kg; 28 days). We also evaluate if the repeated CBD treatment would attenuate the MK-801-induced behavioral changes in social interaction and novel object recognition tests. CBD treatment began on the 6th day after the start of MK-801 administration and continued until the end of the treatment. Immediately after the behavioral tests, the mice brains were removed and processed to evaluate molecular changes. We measured changes in FosB/FosB and parvalbumin expression, a marker of neuronal activity and a calcium-binding protein expressed in a subclass of GABAergic interneurons, respectively. Changes in the mRNA expression of the NMDA receptor GluN1 subunit gene (GRN1) were also evaluated. Additionally, an increasing number of data has linked schizophrenia with neuroinflammatory conditions, and glial cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, have become increasingly attractive as candidates accounting for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. And besides its antipsychotic properties, CBD also induces anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. Thus, we also evaluated changes in NeuN (a neuronal marker), Iba-1 (a microglia marker) and GFAP (an astrocyte marker) expression in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens core and shell, and dorsal hippocampus by immunohistochemistry. CBD effects were compared to those induced by the atypical antipsychotic clozapine. MK-801 administration at the dose of 1 mg/kg for 28 days impaired PPI responses. Chronic treatment with CBD (30 and 60 mg/kg) attenuated MK801-induced PPI impairment. CBD treatment also attenuated the impairment in social interaction and NOR tests induced by MK-801 treatment. Besides behavioral disruption, MK-801 treatment increased FosB/FosB expression and decreased parvalbumin expression in the mPFC. A decreased mRNA level of GRN1 in the hippocampus was also observed. Repeated MK-801 treatment also increased the number of GFAP-positive astrocytes in the mPFC and increased the percentage of Iba-1-positive microglia cells with a reactive phenotype in the mPFC and dorsal hippocampus without changing the number of Iba-1-positive cells. In addition, no change in the number of NeuN-positive cells was observed. All the molecular changes were attenuated by CBD. CBD by itself did not induce any effect. Moreover, CBD effects were similar to those induced by repeated clozapine treatment. These results indicate that repeated treatment with CBD, similar to clozapine, reverses the psychotomimetic-like effects and attenuates molecular changes observed after chronic administration of an NMDA receptor antagonist. These data reinforce the proposal that CBD may induce antipsychotic-like effects. Although the possible mechanism of action of these effects is still unknown, it may involve CBD anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Furthermore, our data support the view that inhibition of microglial activation may improve schizophrenia symptoms

Dados pré-clínicos e clínicos indicam que o canabidiol (CBD), um composto não-psicotomimético presente na planta Cannabis sativa, induz efeitos tipo-antipsicóticos. No entanto, poucos estudos em animais de laboratório investigaram as propriedades antipsicóticas do tratamento repetido com CBD. As alterações comportamentais induzidas pelo tratamento repetido com antagonistas dos receptores glutamatérgicos do tipo N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA) têm sido propostas como um modelo animal de esquizofrenia. Evidências sugerem que uma hipofunção dos receptores NMDA estaria envolvida nos sintomas positivos, bem como nos sintomas negativos e cognitivos da esquizofrenia. Assim, no presente estudo, nós avaliamos se o tratamento repetido com CBD atenuaria as alterações comportamentais e moleculares induzidas pela administração crônica de um desses antagonistas, o MK-801. Camundongos C57BL/6J receberam injeções intraperitoneais diárias de MK-801 (0,1, 0,5 ou 1 mg/kg) durante 14, 21 ou 28 dias. Vinte e quatro horas após a última injeção, os animais foram submetidos ao teste de inibição pelo pré-pulso (PPI). Posteriormente, foi avaliado se o tratamento repetido com CBD (15, 30 e 60 mg/kg) atenuaria o prejuízo no teste de PPI induzido pelo MK-801 (1 mg/kg; por 28 dias). O tratamento com CBD iniciou-se no sexto dia após o início da administração de MK-801 e continuou até o final do tratamento. Nós também avaliamos se o tratamento com CBD atenuaria as alterações comportamentais induzidas pelo MK-801 nos testes de interação social e reconhecimento de objeto. Imediatamente após os testes comportamentais, os cérebros dos animais foram removidos e processados para posterior avaliação de alterações moleculares. Foram avaliadas as alterações na expressão das proteínas FosB/FosB e parvalbumina, um marcador de atividade neuronal e uma proteína de ligação ao cálcio expressa em uma subclasse de interneurônios GABAérgicos, respectivamente. Alterações na expressão do RNAm para o gene da subunidade obrigatória GluN1 do receptor NMDA (GRN1) também foram avaliadas. Adicionalmente, um número crescente de estudos indica que condições neuroinflamatórias e células gliais, como microglia e astrócitos, parecem estar envolvidas na patogênese da esquizofrenia. E, devido ao fato que o CBD, além de suas propriedades antipsicóticas, também induz efeitos anti-inflamatórios e neuroprotetores, nós também avaliamos possíveis alterações na expressão de NeuN (um marcador neuronal), Iba-1 (um marcador de microglia) e GFAP (um marcador de astrócitos) induzidas pelos tratamentos. Os efeitos do CBD foram comparados àqueles induzidos pelo antipsicótico atípico clozapina. A administração de MK-801, na dose de 1 mg/kg, por 28 dias induziu um prejuízo no teste de PPI, um efeito atenuado pelo tratamento repetido com CBD (30 e 60 mg/kg). Adicionalmente, o CBD também foi capaz de atenuar os prejuízos nos testes de interação social e reconhecimento de objeto induzidos pelo MK-801. Além das alterações comportamentais, o tratamento repetido com MK-801 aumentou a expressão da proteína FosB/FosB e diminuiu a expressão da parvalbumina no córtex pré-frontal medial (CPFm). Uma diminuição da expressão do mRNA para GRN1 no hipocampo também foi observada. O tratamento com MK-801 resultou ainda em aumento no número de astrócitos GFAP-positivos no CPFm e na porcentagem de células microgliais Iba-1-positivas apresentando um fenótipo reativo no CPFm e hipocampo dorsal, mas sem alterar o número total de células Iba-1-positivas. Nenhuma alteração no número de células NeuN-positivas foi observada. Assim como para as alterações comportamentais, as alterações moleculares induzidas pelo MK-801 também foram atenuadas pelo CBD. Entretanto, o CBD por si só não induziu qualquer efeito. Além disso, os efeitos do CBD foram semelhantes àqueles induzidos pelo tratamento repetido com clozapina. Estes resultados indicam que o tratamento repetido com o CBD, semelhante à clozapina, atenuou as alterações comportamentais tipo-esquizofrenia e as alterações moleculares observadas após a administração repetida de um antagonista dos receptores NMDA. Estes dados reforçam a proposta de que o CBD possui propriedades antipsicóticas. Embora os possíveis mecanismos de ação envolvidos nesses efeitos não estejam completamente elucidados, eles poderiam envolver as propriedades antiinflamatórias e neuroprotetoras do CBD. Além disso, nossos dados suportam a visão de que a inibição da microglia ativada pode ser benéfica para a melhora dos sintomas da esquizofrenia / Preclinical and clinical data suggest that cannabidiol (CBD), a major non-psychotomimetic compound from Cannabis sativa, induces antipsychotic-like effects. However, the antipsychotic properties of repeated CBD treatment have been poorly investigated. Behavioral changes induced by repeated treatment with glutamate NMDA receptor antagonists have been proposed as an animal model of schizophrenia-like symptoms. Evidence suggests that NMDA receptor hypofunction could be involved, in addition to the positive, also to the negative symptoms and cognitive deficits found in schizophrenia patients. In the present study we evaluated if repeated treatment with CBD would attenuate the behavioral and molecular changes induced by chronic administration of one of these antagonists, MK-801. Male C57BL/6J mice received daily intraperitoneal injections of MK-801 (0.1, 0.5 or 1 mg/kg) for 14, 21 or 28 days. Twenty-four hours after the last injection animals were submitted to the prepulse inhibition (PPI) test. After that, we investigated if repeated treatment with CBD (15, 30 and 60 mg/kg) would attenuate the PPI impairment induced by chronic treatment with MK-801 (1 mg/kg; 28 days). We also evaluate if the repeated CBD treatment would attenuate the MK-801-induced behavioral changes in social interaction and novel object recognition tests. CBD treatment began on the 6th day after the start of MK-801 administration and continued until the end of the treatment. Immediately after the behavioral tests, the mice brains were removed and processed to evaluate molecular changes. We measured changes in FosB/FosB and parvalbumin expression, a marker of neuronal activity and a calcium-binding protein expressed in a subclass of GABAergic interneurons, respectively. Changes in the mRNA expression of the NMDA receptor GluN1 subunit gene (GRN1) were also evaluated. Additionally, an increasing number of data has linked schizophrenia with neuroinflammatory conditions, and glial cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, have become increasingly attractive as candidates accounting for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. And besides its antipsychotic properties, CBD also induces anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. Thus, we also evaluated changes in NeuN (a neuronal marker), Iba-1 (a microglia marker) and GFAP (an astrocyte marker) expression in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens core and shell, and dorsal hippocampus by immunohistochemistry. CBD effects were compared to those induced by the atypical antipsychotic clozapine. MK-801 administration at the dose of 1 mg/kg for 28 days impaired PPI responses. Chronic treatment with CBD (30 and 60 mg/kg) attenuated MK801-induced PPI impairment. CBD treatment also attenuated the impairment in social interaction and NOR tests induced by MK-801 treatment. Besides behavioral disruption, MK-801 treatment increased FosB/FosB expression and decreased parvalbumin expression in the mPFC. A decreased mRNA level of GRN1 in the hippocampus was also observed. Repeated MK-801 treatment also increased the number of GFAP-positive astrocytes in the mPFC and increased the percentage of Iba-1-positive microglia cells with a reactive phenotype in the mPFC and dorsal hippocampus without changing the number of Iba-1-positive cells. In addition, no change in the number of NeuN-positive cells was observed. All the molecular changes were attenuated by CBD. CBD by itself did not induce any effect. Moreover, CBD effects were similar to those induced by repeated clozapine treatment. These results indicate that repeated treatment with CBD, similar to clozapine, reverses the psychotomimetic-like effects and attenuates molecular changes observed after chronic administration of an NMDA receptor antagonist. These data reinforce the proposal that CBD may induce antipsychotic-like effects. Although the possible mechanism of action of these effects is still unknown, it may involve CBD anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Furthermore, our data support the view that inhibition of microglial activation may improve schizophrenia symptoms

Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Anesthesia-induced spatial learning impairments in aged rats model postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) in the elderly surgical population. Mechanisms underlying both normal age-related cognitive decline and anesthesia-induced spatial learning deficits in aged rats were investigated. With respect to the involvement of inflammasome activation and age-related cognitive decline, I hypothesized that the aged hippocampus exhibits an elevated activation of inflammasome components contributing to elevated levels of IL-1β in the aged brain. Age-related cognitive decline was identified in a subpopulation of male Fischer 344 rats. Activation of the NLRP1 inflammasome was elevated in the aged brain, contributing to spatial learning deficits in aged rats. With respect to anesthesia-induced spatial learning impairment in aged rats, I hypothesized that an increase in NR2B subunit in the hippocampus and cortex during and following isoflurane anesthesia exposure resulting in spatial learning impairment in aged rats via disruption of downstream signaling molecule, extracellular-signal regulated protein kinase (ERK). Anesthesia exposure resulted in chronic spatial learning impairment in aged rats that were previously unimpaired in spatial learning tasks. Additionally, anesthesia induced elevated levels of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor NR2B subunit protein expression in aged. It was concluded that various factors contribute to age-related spatial impairment including: NLRP1 inflammasome activation and NMDA receptor NR2B protein expression elevation. It was also concluded that anesthesia exposure exacerbates the elevation in NR2B protein expression in the aged brain, with subsequent disruption of ERK activation leading to chronic spatial learning deficits in aged rats. In the final chapter, a relationship for the interplay between inflammation and NMDA receptor function in the aged brain is discussed. In addition, a novel mechanism for anesthesia-induced cognitive deficits is presented. Therapeutic treatments for cognitive decline and anesthesia-induced cognitive deficits are explored. Finally, future lines of research are proposed.

Research in the field of molecular neuroscience contributes a better perception of the events that trigger neurodegeneration. At the forefront of this work is the study of intracellular calcium as a consequence of mitochondrial dumping and NMDA receptor activation by glutamate. Increased intracellular calcium presages excitotoxicity with ultimate apoptosis of the cell. Among the many disorders involving this sequence is depression, a disorder that in and of itself is a risk factor for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer disease. The successful use of anti-depressants to alleviate the depressive state leads to the question about whether these pharmacological agents, as part of their effect to ameliorate depression, might have an effect on intracellular calcium. Until now, this has not been explored directly but such exploration was initiated with this thesis. As a model for astrocytes and neurons, two cell lines, C6 and SH-SY5Y were used. These were differentiated with all-trans retinoic acid into astrocyte-like and neuron-like cells. Graphic imaging of intracellular calcium by ratiometrics is not new, but what is new is using this technique to evaluate the effect of the antidepressants mirtazapine and citalopram on intracellular calcium fluxes induced by glutamate. Furthermore, comparing the ratiometric intracellular calcium flux in the presence of mirtazapine and citalopram to that of known NMDA blockers was also done for the first time. Also studied were the acute and chronic effects of mirtazapine and citalopram on cell viability. The antidepressant agents, mirtazapine and citalopram, were chosen for this study. Mirtazapine blocks the adrenergic and serotonergic inhibitory autoreceptors which results in the increased release of these neurotransmitters and increases their concentration in the synapse. And it also has been shown to have an anti-oxidant and a calcium modulatory effect. Citalopram has the highest degree of serotonin reuptake selectivity of all the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The ratiometric studies found that mirtazapine and citalopram reduce the effect of glutamate-induced increase in relative [Ca2+]i by either a direct or indirect action on NMDA receptors. This effect is not similar to the NMDA blockers memantine and AP5. The supporting evidence is that CCCP, which normally releases calcium from mitochondria, has no effect in cells treated with acute mirtazapine or citalopram. This indicates that no calcium entered the cell – and subsequently none was taken up by mitochondria – in response to glutamate. However, these observations were with a limited number of cells and, therefore, these results will have to be verified by different techniques by different laboratories. In microplate studies, all drugs studied reduced cell viability but the mechanism behind this reduced viability remains to be determined. This may be due to mutations in enzymatic expression, uptake of drug through the cell membrane, or other perturbations. The reduction in cell viability induced by acute glutamate was attenuated by pretreatment with mirtazapine or citalopram. Moreover, chronic treatment of the cells with mirtazapine or citalopram for 10 weeks before acute treatment with glutamate either attenuated the effect on viability or reversed it. Based on this present study, mirtazapine and citalopram may be useful as neuroprotective agents to alleviate not only depression but also to reduce cell death in neurodegenerative diseases, trauma and stroke.

NMDA (N-methyl D-aspartate) Receptor is a ligand and voltage gated ion channel and involved in many processes such as synaptic plasticity, memory formation, behavioral responses and cell survival. In the sense of functional activity, cellular localization of NMDAR is important since this receptor shows its activity on the membrane. Although NMDA receptor is intensely studied there are no satisfying study showing its localization with microscobic methods. Besides, the effect of florescent protein labelling of NMDA receptor on its distribution is not shown. It is expected to provide basis for further interaction and distribution studies with this comparison. Contrary to literature, in this study it is shown that NMDA receptor does not localize only in ER and membrane instead has a cytosolic pattern and this pattern is compatible with the distribution of wild type NMDA receptor. In addition, florescent protein labelling of NMDA receptor does not interrupt cellular distribution of NMDAR. Moreover, this study shows that N-terminal domain of NR1 subunit is sufficient to prevent degradation of NR2B in the cell. In consideration of this study it can be concluded that EGFP and mCherry labelled NMDA receptors can be used in interaction studies such as FRET and other studies, making use of fluorescent labelling of NMDA receptors, in terms of cellular distribution.