Nanofabrication techniques continue to advance and are rapidly becoming the primary route to enhancement for the electrical, thermal, and optical properties of materials. The work presented in this dissertation details fabrication and characterization techniques of thin films and nanoparticles for these purposes. The four primary areas of research presented here are thermoelectric enhancement through nanostructured thin films, an alternative frequency-domain thermoreflectance method for thin film thermal conductivity measurement, thermal rectification in nanodendritic porous silicon, and plasmonic enhancement in silver nanospheroids as a reverse photolithography technique. Nanostructured thermoelectrics have been proposed to greatly increase thermopower efficiency and to bring thermoelectrics to mainstream power generation and cooling applications. In our work, thermoelectric thin films of SbTe, BiTe, and PbTe grown by atomic layer deposition and electrochemical atomic layer deposition were characterized for enhanced performance over corresponding bulk materials. Seebeck coefficient measurements were performed at temperatures ranging from 77 K to 380 K. Atomic composition was verified by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and structures were imaged by scanning electron microscopy. All thin films measured were ultimately found to have a comparable or smaller Seebeck coefficient to corresponding materials made by conventional techniques, likely due to issues with the growth process. Frequency-domain thermoreflectance offers a minimally invasive optical pump-probe technique for measuring thermal conductivity. Like time-domain thermoreflectance, the version of frequency-domain thermoreflectance demonstrated here relies on a non-zero thermo-optic coefficient in the sample, but uses moderate cost continuous wave lasers modulated at kHz or MHz frequencies rather than a more expensive ultrafast laser system. The longer timescales of these frequency ranges enables this technique to take measurements of films with thicknesses ranging from 100 nm to 10 um, complimentary to time-domain thermoreflectance. This method differentiates itself from other frequency-domain methods in that it is also capable of simultaneous independent measurements of both the in plane and out of plane values of the thermal conductivity in anisotropic samples through relative reflective magnitude, rather than phase, measurements. We validated this alternate technique by measuring the thermal conductivity of Al2O3 and soda-lime and found agreement both with literature values and with separate measurements obtained with a conventional time-domain thermoreflectance setup. Thermal rectification has the potential to enhance microcircuit performance, improve thermoelectric efficiency, and enable the creation of thermal logic circuits. Passive thermal rectification has been proposed to occur in geometrically asymmetric nanostructures when heat conduction is dominated by ballistic phonons. Here, nanodendritic structures with branch widths of ~ 10 nm and lengths of ~ 20 nm connected to ~ 50 um long trunks were electrochemically etched from <111> silicon wafers. Thermal rectification measurements were performed at temperatures ranging from 80 K to 250 K by symmetric thermal conductivity measurements. No thermal rectification was ultimately found in these samples within the margin of thermal conductivity measurement error 1%. This result is consistent with another study which found thermal rectification with greater conduction in the direction opposite to what ballistic phonon heat conduction theories predicted. Plasmonic resonance concentrates incident photon energy and enables channeling of that energy into sub-wavelength volumes where it can be used for nanoscale applications. We demonstrated that surface plasmon polaritons induced in silver nanosphereoid films by 532 nm light defunctionalize previously photocleaved ligands adsorbed onto the films, to yield a reverse photolithographic technique. In this method, gold nanosphere conjugation were conjugated to a photocleaved ligand, however conjugation could be inhibited by exposing the cleaved ligand to 532 nm light and consequently yield a reversal technique. This defunctionalizion effect did not occur on gold films or nanoparticles conjugated with the ligand in IR spectroscopy, and was observed to have a reduced effect in silver films relative to silver nanospheroid film. As silver nanospheroid films and gold nanospheres of the size used in this study are known to have plasmon resonance in the green wavelengths, while gold and silver continuous films do not, this defunctionalization likely results from plasmonic effects. / Ph. D. / The increasing trend toward smaller and more efficient electronic devices requires continuous refinement of manufacturing and materials technology. From communication devices to temperature management, miniaturization in electronic components allows for greater versatility in applications. In battery powered devices, increasing efficiency both extends operational lifetime and reduces operational costs in terms of kilowatt hours as well as carbon footprint resulting from powering the devices. Through the application of miniaturization, conventional fabrication techniques are rapidly approaching the physical limits of their applicability, and newer techniques must be developed. Nanofabrication methods involve working with materials at scales where quantum mechanical effects can dominate over classical effects. Some examples of these effects are unique heat and electrical conduction properties in, effectively, one or two dimensional materials as in the case of quantum dots or thin films. This size regime not only allows for construction at smaller scales, but also enables the manipulation of quantum mechanical effects to produce different types of devices which were not possible to make previously. For example, materials can be built up one atomic layer at a time, enabling the creation of a material with perfect atomic ordering, as opposed to common methods which yield many imperfections. This dissertation details fabrication and characterization techniques of nanoscale devices focusing on thermoelectrics, thin film thermal conductivity, thermal rectification, and plasmonic enhancement. Thermoelectrics are devices that use temperature differences across the device to produce electric power or, conversely, create a temperature difference across the device when electrically driven. Theoretical studies have proposed that the efficiency of thermoelectric materials can be greatly increased through nanofabrication. Here, thin film thermoelectric devices made from commonly employed bulk materials such as SbTe, BiTe, and PbTe produced by atomic layer deposition and electrochemical atomic layer deposition, were characterized to test these theories. Ultimately, no notable enhancement was found in our samples over conventionally produced materials, but this may have been due to difficulties in the fabrication process of the thin films. Thermoreflectance is a purely optical technique for thermal conductivity (the measure of how well a material conducts heat) measurement which can measure thin film materials. Other benefits of the technique are its speed and that samples measured by it are not damaged, unlike other methods which effectively ruin the sample for any purpose beyond the measurement. Cost, however, is a major downside to conventional thermoreflectance, as it requires pricey ultrafast laser systems. Presented here is an alternative method of thermoreflectance which used much more economical diode lasers to achieve thermal conductivity measurements. This system costs approximately a tenth of what a conventional system would, while also being capable of measuring in-plane and cross-plane thermal conductivity simultaneously. The drawbacks of this method are thicker film requirements and the necessity of having well-defined control samples of similar thermal conductivity to the sample of interest. Management of waste heat is one of the major design limitations in modern circuitry. Removal of waste heat is most often performed by adhering large surface area heat sinks to heat generating areas and/or mechanical fans to aid in heat radiation. One proposed method of reducing the amount of space required for heat management is through the development and implementation of thermal rectifiers, which are materials that conduct heat more efficiently in one direction than the opposite. The thermal rectification properties of nanodendritic porous silicon is explored here. This material is made by electrochemically etching silicon wafers such that the surface is formed into an array of pine-tree-like structures on the nanoscale. While it was proposed that these structures would manifest thermal rectification under the right conditions, no rectification was observed. This result is consistent with previous experimental work which observed preferential heat conduction in the opposite direction to that proposed by this theory, likely caused by a different effect. Plasmonic enhancement enables absorption and manipulation of light energy in structures far smaller than conventional techniques permit. In the case of photolithography, a go-to method of commercial microfabrication, the smallest feature size is a function of the wavelength of light used and is typically around 100 nm. Plasmonic techniques enable optical manipulation in structures of sizes down to a few nm. The plasmonic enhancement technique demonstrated here is a photolithography technique in which selective nanosphere-to-nanosphere binding occurs This technique offers another method of directed self-assembly, where nanoparticles can come together to form larger structures. A benefit of this method is that large quantities of nanoparticle assemblies can occur simultaneously, allowing for rapid production of assembled nanostructures.

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No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Monise Cristina Ribeiro Casanova Coltro - 2014.pdf: 2363437 bytes, checksum: c570d900344418055e735c453f546be0 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-12-01 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / Bioabsorbable and biodegradable polymers are extremely importante in medical applications such as sutures and controlled drug realease systems because they do not produce toxic products. In this sense, several researches prepare and characterize polylactic acid but do not apply it or vice-versa. The present work aimed to prepare and characterize polylactic acid and perform in vitro and in vivo tests in inflammaded knees of sheeps. In this work, the polymers PLLA and PDLLA were sinthesized by melt policondensation method. In order to reach a higher molecular weight of polymers, catalysts were used based on zinc and tin supported on sulfonated styrene-divinylbenzene (Sty-DVB) copolymers. The Sty-DVB copolymer was synthesized through suspension polymerization in the presence of inert diluents. The Sty-DVB copolymer was sulfonated with concentrated sulfuric acid in the presence of dichloroethane. The original and sulfonated copolymer, as well, the supported catalysts were characterized by nitrogen physical adsorption, FTIR, EDS, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, atomic absorption spectrometry and thermogravimetric analysis. PLLA and PDLLA were characterized by inherent viscosity measurements, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance of 1H and 13C. PDLLA nanospheres were prepared through nanoprecipitation method without and with the incorporation of dexamethasone, an anti-inflammatory drug. The polymeric nanospheres were characterized by dynamic light scattering to measure medium diameter and polydispersity index, as well, zeta potential The encapsulation efficiency, the drug loading, the yield as well as controlled release drug profile in dialyses membrane were obtained by high performance liquid chromatography analyzes. Tin was supported on sulfonated Sty-DVB copolymer as SnO2, while zinc was detected by EDS analysis without the possibility of compound type identification. Tin supported catalyst was more efficient than zinc containing catalyst. PDLLA nanospheres containing encapsulated dexamethasone with medium diameter of 80 nm and polydispersity index near 0.110 were obtained with excellent reproducibility. Encapsulation efficiency, dexamethasone load in PDLLA and yield were 75 %, 3.5 % and 78 %, respectively. In vivo tests showed the visual apparence on recuperation of inflamed sheep knees treated with PDLLA nanoespheres were excelente compared to the ones treated with comercial dexametasone. / Polímeros biodegradáveis e bioabsorvíveis são de extrema importância em aplicações médicas em suturas ou como carreadores de fármacos devido a produção de resíduos não tóxicos. Neste sentido, vários trabalhos sintetizam e caracterizam o poliácido lático mas não fazem nenhuma aplicação in vitro e in vivo e vice-versa. Assim este trabalho visou sintetizar e caracterizar o poliácido lático e realizar testes de liberação in vitro e testes de liberação in vivo em joelhos inflamados por ruptura de ligamento de ovelhas. Neste trabalho sintetizou-se os polímeros PLLA e PDLLA pelo método de policondensação em estado fundido. Para garantir o alcance de um peso molecular maior, fez-se o uso de catalisadores de zinco e estanho suportado em copolímero estireno-divinilbenzeno (Sty-DVB) sulfonado. O copolímero Sty-DVB foi preparado por polimerização em suspensão na presença de diluentes inertes. O copolímero Sty-DVB foi sulfonado com ácido sulfúrico concentrado na presença de dicloroetano. O copolímero original e sulfonado, bem como, os catalisadores suportados foram caracterizados por medidas de adsorção física de nitrogênio, espectroscopia na região de infravermelho, espectrometria de energia dispersiva (EDS), microscopia eletrônica de varredura, difração de raios-X, espectrometria absorção atômica e termogravimetria. Os polímeros PLLA e PDLLA foram caracterizados por medidas de viscosidade inerente, difração de raios X, termogravimetria e ressonância magnética nuclear de 1H e 13C. Nanoesferas de PDLLA foram preparadas pelo método de nanoprecipitação sem e com o farmáco anti-inflamatório dexametasona. As nanoesferas foram caracterizadas por espalhamento de luz dinâmico para medir o diâmetro médio e o índice de polidispersão, bem como, o potencial zeta. A eficiência de encapsulamento do fármaco, a carga do fármaco, o rendimento bem como o perfil de liberação do fármaco em teste in vitro em membrana de diálise foram obtidos por análises de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. O estanho foi suportado no copolímero Sty-DVB sulfonado na forma de SnO2, enquanto para o zinco a sua presença foi detectada pela análise de EDS sem que fosse possível identificar o tipo de composto adsorvido. O catalisador com estanho suportado foi mais eficiente que o catalisador contendo zinco. Nanoesferas de PDLLA contendo dexametasona encapsulada com diâmetro médio de 80 nm e polidispersão de aproximadamente 0,110 foram obtidas com excelente reprodutibilidade. A eficiência de encapsulamento, a carga de dexametasona no PDLLA e o rendimento form 75%, 3,5% e 78 %, respectivamente. Os testes in vivo preliminares mostraram que a aparência visual da recuperação do ligamento em joelhos tratados com nanoesferas de PDLLA com dexametasona foram extremamente melhores que os joelhos tratados com dexametasona comercial.

The overarching objective of the investigations discussed herein is the development of a model experimental system for surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA) spectroscopy, with potential applicability in higher order infrared spectroscopic techniques, specifically, surface-enhanced two-dimensional infrared (SE-2D IR) spectroscopy. Theoretical predictions that accurately predict the stability of functionalized nanoparticles enable guided design of their properties but are often limited by the accuracy of the parameters used as model inputs. Hence, first, such parameterization limitations for the extended DLVO (xDLVO) theory are overcome using a size-dependent Hamaker constant for gold, interfacial surface potentials, and tilt angles of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), which collectively improves the predictive power of xDLVO theory for modeling nanoparticle stability. Measurements of electrical properties of functionalized gold nanoparticles validate the predictions of xDLVO theory using these new parameterizations illustrating the potential for this approach to improve the design and control of the properties of functionalized gold nanoparticles in various applications. Next, a series of experiments were conducted to elucidate the behavior of various infrared active molecules in the presence of spherical gold nanoparticles of average diameter ∼20 nm. Here, the spectroscopic anomalies, specifically the shifted vibrational frequency and the dispersive lineshape observed in the infrared spectra for SCN- in the presence of gold nanoparticles provide direct evidence of SIERA. Nevertheless, it was evidenced that nanomaterial with plasmonic properties that extends into the infrared wavelengths are imperative in observing efficient infrared enhancements. Hence, nanomaterial indicating plasmonic properties extending into the infrared wavelengths were synthesized via a straightforward, seedless, one-pot synthesis. The gold nanostars prepared here indicated plasmonic behavior clearly extending into the near infrared, with simple plasmonic tunability via changing the buffer concentration used during synthesis. The systematic understanding achieved here in terms of theoretical prediction of nanoparticle stability, origin of infrared spectral anomalies in the presence of nanomaterials, and the preparation of infrared plasmonic material, collectively provides a resilient framework for the further investigation of surface-enhanced infrared spectroscopic techniques including SEIRA and SE-2D IR spectroscopies.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver e caracterizar formulações tópicas semi-sólidas, utilizando como substância ativa a nimesulida, associando-a a sistemas coloidais (nanoesferas, nanocápsulas ou nanoemulsões). Os parâmetros de liberação, penetração transcutânea e retenção cutânea do antiinflamatório veículado aos sistemas nanoestruturados foram estudados através de metodologia “in vitro”, empregando pele humana como membrana. Os métodos de nanoprecipitação e nanodispersão foram utilizados e possibilitaram a obtenção de nanocápsulas, nanoesferas e nanoemulsões de nimesulida. A análise das características físico-químicas dos sistemas estudados demonstrou que os diâmetros médios obtidos foram em torno de 300 nm. As taxas de associação situaram-se próximas a 99 % e os valores de pH entre 5,1-5,3. As suspensões contendo nimesulida foram incorporadas em géis de Carbopol 940®, apresentando leve coloração amarelada e características organolépticas satisfatórias, após a incorporação das mesmas. As taxas de recuperação e os valores de pH para os géis contendo nanocápsulas, nanoesferas e nanoemulsão de nimesulida, mantiveramse estáveis durante o período de armazenagem (120 dias). Todas as formulações de géis foram caracterizadas como sistemas não-newtonianos apresentando comportamento pseudoplástico (shear thinning), sendo os reogramas ajustados pelo modelo de Ostwald (coeficiente de regressão>0,99). Experimentalmente, nenhum fenômeno de tixotropia foi detectado para as formulações testadas e a incorporação dos nanocarreadores não modificou o tipo de fluxo apresentado por estes sistemas. Os diferentes sistemas nanocarreadores incorporados nos géis hidrofílicos, foram investigados em função do potencial de liberação do fármaco na pele, usando célula de difusão tipo Franz e técnica de tape stripping em pele humana. O fármaco foi detectado no estrato córneo para o gel contendo nanocápsulas (GNM-NC) e para o gel contendo nanoesferas (GNM-NS) de nimesulida, não havendo diferença significativa entre estes dois valores. Por outro lado, o fármaco não foi detectado no estrato córneo para o gel contendo nanoemulsão de nimesulida, sendo permeado diretamente para a derme. A presença da nimesulida na epiderme/derme foi significativamente maior para o gel contendo nanocápsulas (GNM-NC) do que para o gel contendo nanoesferas (GNM-NS) ou nanoemulsão (GNM-NE). Os géis contendo nimesulida incorporada em nanocarreadores (GNM-NC, GNM-NS e GNM-NE) foram capazes de promover a penetração do fármaco no estrato córneo e/ou na camada de pele viável, com relação ao fármaco livre na mesma concentração. Estes estudos comparativos demonstraram a influência da presença do polímero e do tipo de nanocarreador na penetração do fármaco em pele humana. / The objective of this work was to develop and characterize semisolid topical formulations containing nimesulide-loaded nanospheres, nanocapsules or nanoemulsion. In order to study the in vitro percutaneous penetration of nimesulide from semi-solid topical formulations containing nanocarriers, an in vitro methodology using human skin was employed. The nanoprecipitation and the spontaneous emulsification methods were used to prepare the colloidal suspensions and nanoemulsion. For all formulation the diameters are in the sub 300 nm ranges. The encapsulation efficiencies were close to 99 % in all cases and pH values ranged between 5.1 and 5.3. Each drug-loaded nanocarrier formulation was incorporated in Carbopol 940® gels. The semisolid dosage forms showed yellowish, glossy and homogeneous aspect after the incorporation of the colloidal suspensions and nanoemulsion. The recovery of nimesulide and the pH values for the gels containing nanoemulsion, nanospheres or nanocapsules remained constant during storage (120 days). For all formulations, the rheograms exhibited a non-Newtonian behavior presenting pseudoplastic characteristics and shear thinning. The rheograms were adjusted to Ostwald’s model showing regression coefficients higher than 0.9900. None thixotropic phenomenon was experimentally detected under the test conditions for all formulations. The ability of delivering the drug into the human skin was investigated using stripping technique and Franz-type diffusion cells. The gel containing nanocapsules (GNM-NC) and the gel containing nanospheres (GNM-NS) released the nimesulide in the same extension into the stratum corneum (SC). On the other hand, for the gel containing nanoemulsion (GNM-NE), the nimesulide was not quantified in SC, but it has been directly permeated for the dermis. The penetration of the nimesulide using the gel containing nanocapsules (GNM-NC) was larger in the deeper skin than using the gel containing nanospheres (GNM-NS) or the one containing nanoemulsion (GNM-NE). The gels containing nanocarriers (GNM-NC, GNM-NS and GNM-NE) were able to release the drug in the viable layer of the skin, comparing to a non-particulated nimesulide-loaded formulation at the same concentration. For the first time, this comparative study showed the influence of the presence of the polymer and of the type of nanocarrier on the permeation of a drug through the human skin.

Este trabalho centrou-se no desenvolvimento tecnológico e na caracterização de nanopartículas poliméricas (nanocápsulas ou nanoesferas) contendo melatonina, empregando diferentes composições, métodos de preparação e concentrações de melatonina. De uma maneira geral, as diferentes suspensões nanoparticuladas foram caracterizadas segundo a determinação dos teores totais de melatonina, a determinação das taxas de associação da melatonina aos nanocarreadores, a análise morfológica, a determinação dos diâmetros médios de partículas e polidispersões, além da determinação dos valores de potenciais zeta. As suspensões de nanocápsulas ou de nanoesferas foram preparadas pelos métodos de deposição interfacial ou de nanoprecipitação, respectivamente. Foram avaliadas as influências do tipo de polímero [Eudragit® S100, Eudragit® RS100, poli(ε-caprolactona) ou poli(lactideo)], de óleo (triglicerídeos dos ácidos cáprico e caprílico, óleo mineral ou Eutanol G®) e de tensoativos (polissorbato 80, poloxamer 188, monooleato de sorbitano, monoestearato de sorbitano ou lecitina) sobre as características físico-químicas das suspensões. Os resultados demonstraram que as nanopartículas apresentaram diâmetros inferiores a 350 nm, encapsulação parcial da melatonina e morfologia esférica. As suspensões de nanoesferas apresentaram eficiências de encapsulação similares, mas diâmetros inferiores às respectivas nanocápsulas. O tipo de polímero empregado influenciou nas taxas de associação da melatonina. De acordo com a maior eficiência de encapsulação (56 %), nanocápsulas preparadas com Eudragit S100® foram selecionadas para secagem por aspersão, empregando dióxido de silício coloidal (3 % m/V). As micropartículas nanorrevestidas obtidas apresentaram eficiência de encapsulação de 93 % e foram capazes de controlar a velocidade de liberação da melatonina, comparativamente ao fármaco puro. O estudo de estabilidade das suspensões de nanocápsulas, comparativamente à nanoemulsão e à nanodispersão dos tensoativos, mostrou que a composição dos sistemas e as condições de armazenamento influenciaram a estabilidade físico-química das formulações. Um delineamento fatorial 23 foi também realizado objetivando-se a comparação das características físicoquímicas de nanocápsulas de Eudragit RS100® contendo melatonina obtidas através de deposição interfacial ou de emulsificação-difusão. As taxas de associação da melatonina não foram influenciadas pela composição das formulações e nem pelo método de preparação empregado. Por outro lado, os diâmetros, as polidispersões, os potenciais zeta, os valores de pH e a estabilidade físico-química foram influenciados pelo método de preparação e/ou pela composição dos sistemas. As propriedades antioxidantes da melatonina associada a nanopartículas foram também avaliadas. Desta forma, experimentos in vitro de lipoperoxidação de microssomas hepáticos e de lipossomas de fosfatidilcolina, induzida pelo radical ascorbil, foram realizados. Nanocápsulas ou nanoesferas preparadas com Eudragit S100® foram selecionadas para o estudo, com base na maior eficiência de associação do fármaco. Nanoemulsão também foi testada para verificar a influência da presença do polímero. A presença da melatonina foi capaz de proteger os lipídios em comparação aos controles, com influência da formulação, da dose de melatonina e do modelo de membrana empregado. Apenas os nanocarreadores poliméricos (nanocápsulas ou nanoesferas revestidas com polissorbato 80) contendo melatonina foram capazes de aumentar significativamente a atividade antioxidante deste fármaco nos dois modelos de membrana empregados. Finalmente, nanocápsulas de Eudragit S100® revestidas com polissorbato 80 foram administradas, intraperitonealmente em camundongos sadios, e os efeitos antioxidantes agudos da melatonina in vivo foram avaliados no cérebro (córtex frontal e hipocampo) e no fígado. Os resultados demonstraram que as nanocápsulas contendo melatonina foram capazes de reduzir significativamente a lipoperoxidação no córtex, no hipocampo e no fígado, ao passo que a solução do fármaco não exerceu efeito significativo. O conjunto dos resultados demonstrou a viabilidade tecnológica da preparação de sistemas poliméricos nanoparticulados e microparticulados contendo melatonina, na forma de suspensão ou de pós, com potencial aplicação tanto no aumento da atividade antioxidante quanto no controle da liberação deste fármaco. / This work has been based on the development and characterization of the melatoninloaded polymeric nanoparticles (nanocapsules or nanospheres) employing different system compositions, methods of preparation and melatonin concentrations. In general, the different nanoparticle suspensions were characterized in terms of melatonin content and its association within the particles, morphology, mean size and polydispersity of the particles, as well as the zeta potentials. The nanocapsule or nanosphere suspensions were prepared by interfacial deposition or nanoprecipitation methods, respectively. The influences of the type of the polymer [Eudragit® S100, Eudragit® RS100, poly(ε-caprolactone) or poly(lactide)], of the oil nature (caprylic/capric triglyceride, mineral oil or Eutanol G®) and of the type of surfactants (polysorbate 80, poloxamer 188, sorbitan monooleate, sorbitan monostearate or lecithin) on the physicochemical characteristics of suspensions were evaluated. The results demonstrated that the nanoparticles presented mean size lower than 350 nm, partial encapsulation of melatonin and they were spherically shape. The nanosphere suspensions presented similar encapsulation efficiencies to nanocapsules, however, the former presented a lower mean size of particles. The type of polymer used in the formulations influenced the encapsulation efficiencies. The nanocapsules prepared with Eudragit S100® were selected to be spray-dried, using colloidal silicon dioxide (3 % w/v), due to the highest encapsulation efficiency (56 %). The nanoparticle-coated microparticles presented the encapsulation efficiency of 93 % and they controlled the release rate of melatonin when compared to the pure drug. The physicochemical stability evaluation of the melatonin-loaded nanocapsule suspensions compared to the nanoemulsion or the nanodispersion of surfactants showed that the composition of the melatonin-loaded system and the storage conditions influenced the physicochemical stability of the formulations. Melatonin-loaded Eudragit RS100®-nanocapsule suspensions prepared by interfacial deposition or by emulsification-diffusion techniques were also compared in terms of physicochemical characteristics using a 23 fatorial-design. The formulation composition or the preparation methods did not influence the encapsulation efficiencies. However, the mean size, polydispersity, zeta potential, pH and physicochemical stability were influenced by the formulation composition and/or by the preparation methods. The antioxidant properties of the melatonin-loaded nanoparticle suspensions were also evaluated. Hence, phosphatidylcoline liposomes or liver microsomes were used as model of the lipid membrane and in vitro lipid peroxidation was induced by free radical ascorbyl. The melatonin-loaded Eudragit S100® nanoparticles (nanocapsules and nanospheres) were selected to this study based on the highest encapsulation efficiencies. The nanoemulsion was also evaluated for studying the influence of the presence of the polymer The results demonstrated that the lipids were protected against peroxidation due to the presence of the melatonin, and this effect depended on the type of formulation, drug concentration and on the type of the membrane model. Only the melatonin-loaded polymeric nanocarriers (polysorbate 80-coated nanocapsules or nanospheres) were able to improve the antioxidant action of melatonin in both membrane model. Finally, the in vivo acute antioxidant capacities of melatonin-loaded polysorbate 80-coated Eudragit S100® nanocapsules in the brain (frontal cortex and hippocampus) and in the liver were compared to the effect of the drug solution, after 1 h of intraperitoneal administration in mice. It was verified that the melatonin-loaded nanocapsules significantly decreased the lipid peroxidation in the cortex, in the hippocampus and in the liver. On the other hand, the melatonin solution did not significantly decrease the lipid peroxidation. Briefly, the results demonstrated the technological viability of the preparation of melatonin-loaded polymeric nanoparticulated and microparticulated systems in the form of suspension or powder. These polymeric particulated systems presented potential applications in both to improve the antioxidant activity and to control the release profile of melatonin.

Este trabalho centrou-se no desenvolvimento tecnológico e na caracterização de nanopartículas poliméricas (nanocápsulas ou nanoesferas) contendo melatonina, empregando diferentes composições, métodos de preparação e concentrações de melatonina. De uma maneira geral, as diferentes suspensões nanoparticuladas foram caracterizadas segundo a determinação dos teores totais de melatonina, a determinação das taxas de associação da melatonina aos nanocarreadores, a análise morfológica, a determinação dos diâmetros médios de partículas e polidispersões, além da determinação dos valores de potenciais zeta. As suspensões de nanocápsulas ou de nanoesferas foram preparadas pelos métodos de deposição interfacial ou de nanoprecipitação, respectivamente. Foram avaliadas as influências do tipo de polímero [Eudragit® S100, Eudragit® RS100, poli(ε-caprolactona) ou poli(lactideo)], de óleo (triglicerídeos dos ácidos cáprico e caprílico, óleo mineral ou Eutanol G®) e de tensoativos (polissorbato 80, poloxamer 188, monooleato de sorbitano, monoestearato de sorbitano ou lecitina) sobre as características físico-químicas das suspensões. Os resultados demonstraram que as nanopartículas apresentaram diâmetros inferiores a 350 nm, encapsulação parcial da melatonina e morfologia esférica. As suspensões de nanoesferas apresentaram eficiências de encapsulação similares, mas diâmetros inferiores às respectivas nanocápsulas. O tipo de polímero empregado influenciou nas taxas de associação da melatonina. De acordo com a maior eficiência de encapsulação (56 %), nanocápsulas preparadas com Eudragit S100® foram selecionadas para secagem por aspersão, empregando dióxido de silício coloidal (3 % m/V). As micropartículas nanorrevestidas obtidas apresentaram eficiência de encapsulação de 93 % e foram capazes de controlar a velocidade de liberação da melatonina, comparativamente ao fármaco puro. O estudo de estabilidade das suspensões de nanocápsulas, comparativamente à nanoemulsão e à nanodispersão dos tensoativos, mostrou que a composição dos sistemas e as condições de armazenamento influenciaram a estabilidade físico-química das formulações. Um delineamento fatorial 23 foi também realizado objetivando-se a comparação das características físicoquímicas de nanocápsulas de Eudragit RS100® contendo melatonina obtidas através de deposição interfacial ou de emulsificação-difusão. As taxas de associação da melatonina não foram influenciadas pela composição das formulações e nem pelo método de preparação empregado. Por outro lado, os diâmetros, as polidispersões, os potenciais zeta, os valores de pH e a estabilidade físico-química foram influenciados pelo método de preparação e/ou pela composição dos sistemas. As propriedades antioxidantes da melatonina associada a nanopartículas foram também avaliadas. Desta forma, experimentos in vitro de lipoperoxidação de microssomas hepáticos e de lipossomas de fosfatidilcolina, induzida pelo radical ascorbil, foram realizados. Nanocápsulas ou nanoesferas preparadas com Eudragit S100® foram selecionadas para o estudo, com base na maior eficiência de associação do fármaco. Nanoemulsão também foi testada para verificar a influência da presença do polímero. A presença da melatonina foi capaz de proteger os lipídios em comparação aos controles, com influência da formulação, da dose de melatonina e do modelo de membrana empregado. Apenas os nanocarreadores poliméricos (nanocápsulas ou nanoesferas revestidas com polissorbato 80) contendo melatonina foram capazes de aumentar significativamente a atividade antioxidante deste fármaco nos dois modelos de membrana empregados. Finalmente, nanocápsulas de Eudragit S100® revestidas com polissorbato 80 foram administradas, intraperitonealmente em camundongos sadios, e os efeitos antioxidantes agudos da melatonina in vivo foram avaliados no cérebro (córtex frontal e hipocampo) e no fígado. Os resultados demonstraram que as nanocápsulas contendo melatonina foram capazes de reduzir significativamente a lipoperoxidação no córtex, no hipocampo e no fígado, ao passo que a solução do fármaco não exerceu efeito significativo. O conjunto dos resultados demonstrou a viabilidade tecnológica da preparação de sistemas poliméricos nanoparticulados e microparticulados contendo melatonina, na forma de suspensão ou de pós, com potencial aplicação tanto no aumento da atividade antioxidante quanto no controle da liberação deste fármaco. / This work has been based on the development and characterization of the melatoninloaded polymeric nanoparticles (nanocapsules or nanospheres) employing different system compositions, methods of preparation and melatonin concentrations. In general, the different nanoparticle suspensions were characterized in terms of melatonin content and its association within the particles, morphology, mean size and polydispersity of the particles, as well as the zeta potentials. The nanocapsule or nanosphere suspensions were prepared by interfacial deposition or nanoprecipitation methods, respectively. The influences of the type of the polymer [Eudragit® S100, Eudragit® RS100, poly(ε-caprolactone) or poly(lactide)], of the oil nature (caprylic/capric triglyceride, mineral oil or Eutanol G®) and of the type of surfactants (polysorbate 80, poloxamer 188, sorbitan monooleate, sorbitan monostearate or lecithin) on the physicochemical characteristics of suspensions were evaluated. The results demonstrated that the nanoparticles presented mean size lower than 350 nm, partial encapsulation of melatonin and they were spherically shape. The nanosphere suspensions presented similar encapsulation efficiencies to nanocapsules, however, the former presented a lower mean size of particles. The type of polymer used in the formulations influenced the encapsulation efficiencies. The nanocapsules prepared with Eudragit S100® were selected to be spray-dried, using colloidal silicon dioxide (3 % w/v), due to the highest encapsulation efficiency (56 %). The nanoparticle-coated microparticles presented the encapsulation efficiency of 93 % and they controlled the release rate of melatonin when compared to the pure drug. The physicochemical stability evaluation of the melatonin-loaded nanocapsule suspensions compared to the nanoemulsion or the nanodispersion of surfactants showed that the composition of the melatonin-loaded system and the storage conditions influenced the physicochemical stability of the formulations. Melatonin-loaded Eudragit RS100®-nanocapsule suspensions prepared by interfacial deposition or by emulsification-diffusion techniques were also compared in terms of physicochemical characteristics using a 23 fatorial-design. The formulation composition or the preparation methods did not influence the encapsulation efficiencies. However, the mean size, polydispersity, zeta potential, pH and physicochemical stability were influenced by the formulation composition and/or by the preparation methods. The antioxidant properties of the melatonin-loaded nanoparticle suspensions were also evaluated. Hence, phosphatidylcoline liposomes or liver microsomes were used as model of the lipid membrane and in vitro lipid peroxidation was induced by free radical ascorbyl. The melatonin-loaded Eudragit S100® nanoparticles (nanocapsules and nanospheres) were selected to this study based on the highest encapsulation efficiencies. The nanoemulsion was also evaluated for studying the influence of the presence of the polymer The results demonstrated that the lipids were protected against peroxidation due to the presence of the melatonin, and this effect depended on the type of formulation, drug concentration and on the type of the membrane model. Only the melatonin-loaded polymeric nanocarriers (polysorbate 80-coated nanocapsules or nanospheres) were able to improve the antioxidant action of melatonin in both membrane model. Finally, the in vivo acute antioxidant capacities of melatonin-loaded polysorbate 80-coated Eudragit S100® nanocapsules in the brain (frontal cortex and hippocampus) and in the liver were compared to the effect of the drug solution, after 1 h of intraperitoneal administration in mice. It was verified that the melatonin-loaded nanocapsules significantly decreased the lipid peroxidation in the cortex, in the hippocampus and in the liver. On the other hand, the melatonin solution did not significantly decrease the lipid peroxidation. Briefly, the results demonstrated the technological viability of the preparation of melatonin-loaded polymeric nanoparticulated and microparticulated systems in the form of suspension or powder. These polymeric particulated systems presented potential applications in both to improve the antioxidant activity and to control the release profile of melatonin.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver e caracterizar formulações tópicas semi-sólidas, utilizando como substância ativa a nimesulida, associando-a a sistemas coloidais (nanoesferas, nanocápsulas ou nanoemulsões). Os parâmetros de liberação, penetração transcutânea e retenção cutânea do antiinflamatório veículado aos sistemas nanoestruturados foram estudados através de metodologia “in vitro”, empregando pele humana como membrana. Os métodos de nanoprecipitação e nanodispersão foram utilizados e possibilitaram a obtenção de nanocápsulas, nanoesferas e nanoemulsões de nimesulida. A análise das características físico-químicas dos sistemas estudados demonstrou que os diâmetros médios obtidos foram em torno de 300 nm. As taxas de associação situaram-se próximas a 99 % e os valores de pH entre 5,1-5,3. As suspensões contendo nimesulida foram incorporadas em géis de Carbopol 940®, apresentando leve coloração amarelada e características organolépticas satisfatórias, após a incorporação das mesmas. As taxas de recuperação e os valores de pH para os géis contendo nanocápsulas, nanoesferas e nanoemulsão de nimesulida, mantiveramse estáveis durante o período de armazenagem (120 dias). Todas as formulações de géis foram caracterizadas como sistemas não-newtonianos apresentando comportamento pseudoplástico (shear thinning), sendo os reogramas ajustados pelo modelo de Ostwald (coeficiente de regressão>0,99). Experimentalmente, nenhum fenômeno de tixotropia foi detectado para as formulações testadas e a incorporação dos nanocarreadores não modificou o tipo de fluxo apresentado por estes sistemas. Os diferentes sistemas nanocarreadores incorporados nos géis hidrofílicos, foram investigados em função do potencial de liberação do fármaco na pele, usando célula de difusão tipo Franz e técnica de tape stripping em pele humana. O fármaco foi detectado no estrato córneo para o gel contendo nanocápsulas (GNM-NC) e para o gel contendo nanoesferas (GNM-NS) de nimesulida, não havendo diferença significativa entre estes dois valores. Por outro lado, o fármaco não foi detectado no estrato córneo para o gel contendo nanoemulsão de nimesulida, sendo permeado diretamente para a derme. A presença da nimesulida na epiderme/derme foi significativamente maior para o gel contendo nanocápsulas (GNM-NC) do que para o gel contendo nanoesferas (GNM-NS) ou nanoemulsão (GNM-NE). Os géis contendo nimesulida incorporada em nanocarreadores (GNM-NC, GNM-NS e GNM-NE) foram capazes de promover a penetração do fármaco no estrato córneo e/ou na camada de pele viável, com relação ao fármaco livre na mesma concentração. Estes estudos comparativos demonstraram a influência da presença do polímero e do tipo de nanocarreador na penetração do fármaco em pele humana. / The objective of this work was to develop and characterize semisolid topical formulations containing nimesulide-loaded nanospheres, nanocapsules or nanoemulsion. In order to study the in vitro percutaneous penetration of nimesulide from semi-solid topical formulations containing nanocarriers, an in vitro methodology using human skin was employed. The nanoprecipitation and the spontaneous emulsification methods were used to prepare the colloidal suspensions and nanoemulsion. For all formulation the diameters are in the sub 300 nm ranges. The encapsulation efficiencies were close to 99 % in all cases and pH values ranged between 5.1 and 5.3. Each drug-loaded nanocarrier formulation was incorporated in Carbopol 940® gels. The semisolid dosage forms showed yellowish, glossy and homogeneous aspect after the incorporation of the colloidal suspensions and nanoemulsion. The recovery of nimesulide and the pH values for the gels containing nanoemulsion, nanospheres or nanocapsules remained constant during storage (120 days). For all formulations, the rheograms exhibited a non-Newtonian behavior presenting pseudoplastic characteristics and shear thinning. The rheograms were adjusted to Ostwald’s model showing regression coefficients higher than 0.9900. None thixotropic phenomenon was experimentally detected under the test conditions for all formulations. The ability of delivering the drug into the human skin was investigated using stripping technique and Franz-type diffusion cells. The gel containing nanocapsules (GNM-NC) and the gel containing nanospheres (GNM-NS) released the nimesulide in the same extension into the stratum corneum (SC). On the other hand, for the gel containing nanoemulsion (GNM-NE), the nimesulide was not quantified in SC, but it has been directly permeated for the dermis. The penetration of the nimesulide using the gel containing nanocapsules (GNM-NC) was larger in the deeper skin than using the gel containing nanospheres (GNM-NS) or the one containing nanoemulsion (GNM-NE). The gels containing nanocarriers (GNM-NC, GNM-NS and GNM-NE) were able to release the drug in the viable layer of the skin, comparing to a non-particulated nimesulide-loaded formulation at the same concentration. For the first time, this comparative study showed the influence of the presence of the polymer and of the type of nanocarrier on the permeation of a drug through the human skin.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver e caracterizar formulações tópicas semi-sólidas, utilizando como substância ativa a nimesulida, associando-a a sistemas coloidais (nanoesferas, nanocápsulas ou nanoemulsões). Os parâmetros de liberação, penetração transcutânea e retenção cutânea do antiinflamatório veículado aos sistemas nanoestruturados foram estudados através de metodologia “in vitro”, empregando pele humana como membrana. Os métodos de nanoprecipitação e nanodispersão foram utilizados e possibilitaram a obtenção de nanocápsulas, nanoesferas e nanoemulsões de nimesulida. A análise das características físico-químicas dos sistemas estudados demonstrou que os diâmetros médios obtidos foram em torno de 300 nm. As taxas de associação situaram-se próximas a 99 % e os valores de pH entre 5,1-5,3. As suspensões contendo nimesulida foram incorporadas em géis de Carbopol 940®, apresentando leve coloração amarelada e características organolépticas satisfatórias, após a incorporação das mesmas. As taxas de recuperação e os valores de pH para os géis contendo nanocápsulas, nanoesferas e nanoemulsão de nimesulida, mantiveramse estáveis durante o período de armazenagem (120 dias). Todas as formulações de géis foram caracterizadas como sistemas não-newtonianos apresentando comportamento pseudoplástico (shear thinning), sendo os reogramas ajustados pelo modelo de Ostwald (coeficiente de regressão>0,99). Experimentalmente, nenhum fenômeno de tixotropia foi detectado para as formulações testadas e a incorporação dos nanocarreadores não modificou o tipo de fluxo apresentado por estes sistemas. Os diferentes sistemas nanocarreadores incorporados nos géis hidrofílicos, foram investigados em função do potencial de liberação do fármaco na pele, usando célula de difusão tipo Franz e técnica de tape stripping em pele humana. O fármaco foi detectado no estrato córneo para o gel contendo nanocápsulas (GNM-NC) e para o gel contendo nanoesferas (GNM-NS) de nimesulida, não havendo diferença significativa entre estes dois valores. Por outro lado, o fármaco não foi detectado no estrato córneo para o gel contendo nanoemulsão de nimesulida, sendo permeado diretamente para a derme. A presença da nimesulida na epiderme/derme foi significativamente maior para o gel contendo nanocápsulas (GNM-NC) do que para o gel contendo nanoesferas (GNM-NS) ou nanoemulsão (GNM-NE). Os géis contendo nimesulida incorporada em nanocarreadores (GNM-NC, GNM-NS e GNM-NE) foram capazes de promover a penetração do fármaco no estrato córneo e/ou na camada de pele viável, com relação ao fármaco livre na mesma concentração. Estes estudos comparativos demonstraram a influência da presença do polímero e do tipo de nanocarreador na penetração do fármaco em pele humana. / The objective of this work was to develop and characterize semisolid topical formulations containing nimesulide-loaded nanospheres, nanocapsules or nanoemulsion. In order to study the in vitro percutaneous penetration of nimesulide from semi-solid topical formulations containing nanocarriers, an in vitro methodology using human skin was employed. The nanoprecipitation and the spontaneous emulsification methods were used to prepare the colloidal suspensions and nanoemulsion. For all formulation the diameters are in the sub 300 nm ranges. The encapsulation efficiencies were close to 99 % in all cases and pH values ranged between 5.1 and 5.3. Each drug-loaded nanocarrier formulation was incorporated in Carbopol 940® gels. The semisolid dosage forms showed yellowish, glossy and homogeneous aspect after the incorporation of the colloidal suspensions and nanoemulsion. The recovery of nimesulide and the pH values for the gels containing nanoemulsion, nanospheres or nanocapsules remained constant during storage (120 days). For all formulations, the rheograms exhibited a non-Newtonian behavior presenting pseudoplastic characteristics and shear thinning. The rheograms were adjusted to Ostwald’s model showing regression coefficients higher than 0.9900. None thixotropic phenomenon was experimentally detected under the test conditions for all formulations. The ability of delivering the drug into the human skin was investigated using stripping technique and Franz-type diffusion cells. The gel containing nanocapsules (GNM-NC) and the gel containing nanospheres (GNM-NS) released the nimesulide in the same extension into the stratum corneum (SC). On the other hand, for the gel containing nanoemulsion (GNM-NE), the nimesulide was not quantified in SC, but it has been directly permeated for the dermis. The penetration of the nimesulide using the gel containing nanocapsules (GNM-NC) was larger in the deeper skin than using the gel containing nanospheres (GNM-NS) or the one containing nanoemulsion (GNM-NE). The gels containing nanocarriers (GNM-NC, GNM-NS and GNM-NE) were able to release the drug in the viable layer of the skin, comparing to a non-particulated nimesulide-loaded formulation at the same concentration. For the first time, this comparative study showed the influence of the presence of the polymer and of the type of nanocarrier on the permeation of a drug through the human skin.

Este trabalho centrou-se no desenvolvimento tecnológico e na caracterização de nanopartículas poliméricas (nanocápsulas ou nanoesferas) contendo melatonina, empregando diferentes composições, métodos de preparação e concentrações de melatonina. De uma maneira geral, as diferentes suspensões nanoparticuladas foram caracterizadas segundo a determinação dos teores totais de melatonina, a determinação das taxas de associação da melatonina aos nanocarreadores, a análise morfológica, a determinação dos diâmetros médios de partículas e polidispersões, além da determinação dos valores de potenciais zeta. As suspensões de nanocápsulas ou de nanoesferas foram preparadas pelos métodos de deposição interfacial ou de nanoprecipitação, respectivamente. Foram avaliadas as influências do tipo de polímero [Eudragit® S100, Eudragit® RS100, poli(ε-caprolactona) ou poli(lactideo)], de óleo (triglicerídeos dos ácidos cáprico e caprílico, óleo mineral ou Eutanol G®) e de tensoativos (polissorbato 80, poloxamer 188, monooleato de sorbitano, monoestearato de sorbitano ou lecitina) sobre as características físico-químicas das suspensões. Os resultados demonstraram que as nanopartículas apresentaram diâmetros inferiores a 350 nm, encapsulação parcial da melatonina e morfologia esférica. As suspensões de nanoesferas apresentaram eficiências de encapsulação similares, mas diâmetros inferiores às respectivas nanocápsulas. O tipo de polímero empregado influenciou nas taxas de associação da melatonina. De acordo com a maior eficiência de encapsulação (56 %), nanocápsulas preparadas com Eudragit S100® foram selecionadas para secagem por aspersão, empregando dióxido de silício coloidal (3 % m/V). As micropartículas nanorrevestidas obtidas apresentaram eficiência de encapsulação de 93 % e foram capazes de controlar a velocidade de liberação da melatonina, comparativamente ao fármaco puro. O estudo de estabilidade das suspensões de nanocápsulas, comparativamente à nanoemulsão e à nanodispersão dos tensoativos, mostrou que a composição dos sistemas e as condições de armazenamento influenciaram a estabilidade físico-química das formulações. Um delineamento fatorial 23 foi também realizado objetivando-se a comparação das características físicoquímicas de nanocápsulas de Eudragit RS100® contendo melatonina obtidas através de deposição interfacial ou de emulsificação-difusão. As taxas de associação da melatonina não foram influenciadas pela composição das formulações e nem pelo método de preparação empregado. Por outro lado, os diâmetros, as polidispersões, os potenciais zeta, os valores de pH e a estabilidade físico-química foram influenciados pelo método de preparação e/ou pela composição dos sistemas. As propriedades antioxidantes da melatonina associada a nanopartículas foram também avaliadas. Desta forma, experimentos in vitro de lipoperoxidação de microssomas hepáticos e de lipossomas de fosfatidilcolina, induzida pelo radical ascorbil, foram realizados. Nanocápsulas ou nanoesferas preparadas com Eudragit S100® foram selecionadas para o estudo, com base na maior eficiência de associação do fármaco. Nanoemulsão também foi testada para verificar a influência da presença do polímero. A presença da melatonina foi capaz de proteger os lipídios em comparação aos controles, com influência da formulação, da dose de melatonina e do modelo de membrana empregado. Apenas os nanocarreadores poliméricos (nanocápsulas ou nanoesferas revestidas com polissorbato 80) contendo melatonina foram capazes de aumentar significativamente a atividade antioxidante deste fármaco nos dois modelos de membrana empregados. Finalmente, nanocápsulas de Eudragit S100® revestidas com polissorbato 80 foram administradas, intraperitonealmente em camundongos sadios, e os efeitos antioxidantes agudos da melatonina in vivo foram avaliados no cérebro (córtex frontal e hipocampo) e no fígado. Os resultados demonstraram que as nanocápsulas contendo melatonina foram capazes de reduzir significativamente a lipoperoxidação no córtex, no hipocampo e no fígado, ao passo que a solução do fármaco não exerceu efeito significativo. O conjunto dos resultados demonstrou a viabilidade tecnológica da preparação de sistemas poliméricos nanoparticulados e microparticulados contendo melatonina, na forma de suspensão ou de pós, com potencial aplicação tanto no aumento da atividade antioxidante quanto no controle da liberação deste fármaco. / This work has been based on the development and characterization of the melatoninloaded polymeric nanoparticles (nanocapsules or nanospheres) employing different system compositions, methods of preparation and melatonin concentrations. In general, the different nanoparticle suspensions were characterized in terms of melatonin content and its association within the particles, morphology, mean size and polydispersity of the particles, as well as the zeta potentials. The nanocapsule or nanosphere suspensions were prepared by interfacial deposition or nanoprecipitation methods, respectively. The influences of the type of the polymer [Eudragit® S100, Eudragit® RS100, poly(ε-caprolactone) or poly(lactide)], of the oil nature (caprylic/capric triglyceride, mineral oil or Eutanol G®) and of the type of surfactants (polysorbate 80, poloxamer 188, sorbitan monooleate, sorbitan monostearate or lecithin) on the physicochemical characteristics of suspensions were evaluated. The results demonstrated that the nanoparticles presented mean size lower than 350 nm, partial encapsulation of melatonin and they were spherically shape. The nanosphere suspensions presented similar encapsulation efficiencies to nanocapsules, however, the former presented a lower mean size of particles. The type of polymer used in the formulations influenced the encapsulation efficiencies. The nanocapsules prepared with Eudragit S100® were selected to be spray-dried, using colloidal silicon dioxide (3 % w/v), due to the highest encapsulation efficiency (56 %). The nanoparticle-coated microparticles presented the encapsulation efficiency of 93 % and they controlled the release rate of melatonin when compared to the pure drug. The physicochemical stability evaluation of the melatonin-loaded nanocapsule suspensions compared to the nanoemulsion or the nanodispersion of surfactants showed that the composition of the melatonin-loaded system and the storage conditions influenced the physicochemical stability of the formulations. Melatonin-loaded Eudragit RS100®-nanocapsule suspensions prepared by interfacial deposition or by emulsification-diffusion techniques were also compared in terms of physicochemical characteristics using a 23 fatorial-design. The formulation composition or the preparation methods did not influence the encapsulation efficiencies. However, the mean size, polydispersity, zeta potential, pH and physicochemical stability were influenced by the formulation composition and/or by the preparation methods. The antioxidant properties of the melatonin-loaded nanoparticle suspensions were also evaluated. Hence, phosphatidylcoline liposomes or liver microsomes were used as model of the lipid membrane and in vitro lipid peroxidation was induced by free radical ascorbyl. The melatonin-loaded Eudragit S100® nanoparticles (nanocapsules and nanospheres) were selected to this study based on the highest encapsulation efficiencies. The nanoemulsion was also evaluated for studying the influence of the presence of the polymer The results demonstrated that the lipids were protected against peroxidation due to the presence of the melatonin, and this effect depended on the type of formulation, drug concentration and on the type of the membrane model. Only the melatonin-loaded polymeric nanocarriers (polysorbate 80-coated nanocapsules or nanospheres) were able to improve the antioxidant action of melatonin in both membrane model. Finally, the in vivo acute antioxidant capacities of melatonin-loaded polysorbate 80-coated Eudragit S100® nanocapsules in the brain (frontal cortex and hippocampus) and in the liver were compared to the effect of the drug solution, after 1 h of intraperitoneal administration in mice. It was verified that the melatonin-loaded nanocapsules significantly decreased the lipid peroxidation in the cortex, in the hippocampus and in the liver. On the other hand, the melatonin solution did not significantly decrease the lipid peroxidation. Briefly, the results demonstrated the technological viability of the preparation of melatonin-loaded polymeric nanoparticulated and microparticulated systems in the form of suspension or powder. These polymeric particulated systems presented potential applications in both to improve the antioxidant activity and to control the release profile of melatonin.

Submitted by Marlene Santos (marlene.bc.ufg@gmail.com) on 2014-12-16T19:58:48Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Percília de Andrade Lucena - 2014.pdf: 1506404 bytes, checksum: c895c029b3a1ac62acf42cd19fad7214 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2014-12-22T10:32:36Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Percília de Andrade Lucena - 2014.pdf: 1506404 bytes, checksum: c895c029b3a1ac62acf42cd19fad7214 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-22T10:32:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Percília de Andrade Lucena - 2014.pdf: 1506404 bytes, checksum: c895c029b3a1ac62acf42cd19fad7214 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-03-19 / Polymeric nanoparticles have been used as carriers of drugs that are able to increase the efficacy of many active ingredients. Among the nanocarriers include nanocapsules (NCs), which are vesicular structures containing oil inside surrounded by a polymer wall and nanospheres (NSs) that are impregnated with polymer matrices drug throughout its surface. These structures have many applications such as optimizing drug delivery and reducing the toxic potential of drugs. Itraconazole family of a drug Azole has a broad spectrum of action against fungi and has appropriate pharmacokinetic characteristics for a drug. Thus, this study aims to develope and characterize nanostructured systems containing Itraconazole. Polymeric nanoparticles were obtained by the nanoprecipitation technique, lyophilized, characterized, and evaluated physical-chemically incorporated into mucoadhesive topical formulation. Nanocapsules containing Itraconazole showed encapsulation efficiency rate of 99 ± 6.9%, a mean diameter of 190 ± 10.1 nm, PDI 0.1 ± 0:06 and zeta potential -15 ± 2.5 mV. The nanospheres exhibited rate of encapsulation efficiency of 97 ± 2.8%, mean diameter 120 ± 0.8 nm, 0.1 ± 0.01 PDI and zeta potential -10 ± 3.5 mV. Lyophilization was carried out with 10% trehalose + 10% sucrose, achieving satisfactory results. The drug release after 30 days at 37 °C was 99% for the NCs and 92% for the NEs. The mucoadhesive topical formulation has in its composition 60% Poloxamer 188, 20% polyethylene glycol 400 and 5mg nanostructured itraconazole were incorporated homogeneously. The results indicate that the formulation of Itraconazole in polymeric nanoparticles has potential for in vivo use in the topical treatment of fungal infections. / Nanopartículas poliméricas têm sido utilizadas como carreadores de fármacos capazes de aumentar a eficácia de muitos insumos ativos. Dentre os nanocarreadores, destacam-se: nanocápsulas (NCs), que são estruturas vesiculares, contendo óleo no interior, circundadas por uma parede polimérica e nanoesferas (NEs) que são matrizes poliméricas impregnadas com fármaco por toda sua superfície. Essas estruturas possuem diversas aplicações como otimizar a entrega de fármacos e reduzir o potencial tóxico. O Itraconazol um fármaco da família dos azóis possui um amplo espectro de ação contra fungos e apresenta características farmacocinéticas apropriadas para um fármaco. Sendo assim, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver e caracterizar sistemas nanoestruturados contendo Itraconazol. As nanopartículas poliméricas foram obtidas através da técnica da nanoprecipitação, liofilizadas, caracterizadas, avaliadas físicoquimicamente e incorporadas em formulação tópica mucoadesiva. As nanocápsulas contendo Itraconazol apresentaram taxa de eficiência de encapsulação de 99±6.9%, diâmetro médio de 190±10.1 nm, PDI 0.1±0.06 e potencial zeta -15±2.5 mV. As nanoesferas exibiram taxa de eficiência de encapsulação de 97±2.8%, diâmetro médio de 120±0.8 nm, PDI 0.1±0.01 e potencial zeta -10±3.5 mV. A liofilização foi realizada com 10% de trealose + 10% de sacarose, alcançando resultados satisfatórios. A liberação do fármaco após 30 dias a 37°C foi de 99% para as NCs e 92% para as NEs. A formulação tópica mucoadesiva possui em sua composição 60% Poloxamer 188 e 20% de Polietilenoglicol 400 e 5mg de itraconazol nanoestruturado foram incorporados homogeneamente. Os resultados indicam que a formulação de itraconazol em nanopartículas poliméricas apresenta potencial para utilização in vivo no tratamento tópico de infecções fúngicas.