Counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs) are an expensive phenomenon for organizations, costing billions of dollars collectively each year. Recent research has focused on justice perceptions as predictors of CWBs, but little research has been conducted on the specific types of counterproductive work behaviors (i.e., sabotage, withdrawal, production deviance, abuse, and theft) that result from specific organizational justice perceptions (i.e., distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational) and the mediating effect of state affect. The current paper meta-analyzed the relationships between justice, CWB, and state affect and found that justice was negatively related to dimensions of CWB and state positive/negative affect were negatively/positively related to CWB dimensions, respectively. However, mediation of the relationship between justice and CWB by state affect was inconsistent across justice types and CWB dimensions. These findings suggests that, while managers should maintain an awareness of justice and state affect as individual predictors of CWBs, the current study does not necessarily support the claim that state affect explains the relationship between justice and counterproductive work behavior dimensions.

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This study investigated the subjective well-being of female strippers. The effect that certain variables namely, self-esteem, general health, self-efficacy, perceived social support and sense of coherence had on subjective well-being and the independent components of subjective well-being, namely life satisfaction and positive and negative affect, were investigated. The sample consisted of 75 female strippers and was a consequence of a combination of purposive and convenience non-probability sampling. These women were employed at Teazers - a chain of strip clubs in Gauteng, South Africa. Information was gathered through self-reported questionnaires with quantifiable scales. The results of the regression models showed that life satisfaction depends on perceived social support, but positive and negative affect depends on self-esteem and general health. If life satisfaction and positive and negative affect is combined into a measurement of subjective well-being, 6.7% of the total variance in subjective well-being is uniquely explained by self-esteem. / Psychology / M. Sc. (Psychology)

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between the cross-cultural adjustment of the expatriate spouse and their level of subjective well-being. Demographic factors were considered to identify life domains that may affect cross-cultural adjustment and subjective well-being respectively. The Spousal Adjustment Scale, Scale of Positive and Negative Experience, Satisfaction with life scale, and Flourishing scale were used in the study. A quantitative, cross-sectional survey design was used, and a purposive sample which consisted of expatriate spouses currently residing in Germany was approached (N=156). Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were applied. The results yielded a statistically significant correlation between cross-cultural adjustment and subjective well-being of expatriate spouses and indicated statistically significant differences between demographic groups including language proficiency, dependents, time spent in host country, nationality, career sacrifice, and support network. It was concluded that there is a positive relationship between the cross-cultural adjustment of the expatriate spouse and their well-being and that various demographic factors can influence both constructs. / Industrial & Organisational Psychology / M.Comm. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

本研究旨在探索自我傷害行為的動機、相關現象與情緒調節功能，並以此為基礎釐清該行為的情緒內涵，包括正向情緒強度特質、負向情緒強度特質、平靜滿足、經驗迴避程度及情緒調節能力。此外，本研究以因素分析探索自傷動機的分類，並以此分類結果為基礎，探討不同自傷動機所引發的情緒種類、情緒強度是否有所不同，在自傷行為的進行方式、次數上是否有顯著差異，並瞭解其無法適當應用的情緒調節能力為何。研究採用問卷調查的方式，研究對象為839位私立高中職生，包括日間部與夜間部，調查所得資料以描述統計分析、卡方檢定、相關分析、獨立樣本t檢定、相依樣本t檢定、因素分析、邏輯迴歸分析和階層迴歸分析進行處理。 本研究主要結果如下：首先支持自傷行為具有負向情緒調節的功能，而經驗迴避對於自傷行為的影響有限。其次，將自傷動機進行因素分析的結果發現可以將其分為四類：人際影響、負向感受的因應、避免失控和負向自我評價。在區分是否有自傷行為部分，情緒調節困難的不接納與無助能夠有效解釋自傷行為的有無；在影響自傷行為的頻率部分，自傷動機的強度與情緒調節困難的衝動失控能夠有效解釋自傷頻率的多寡。此外，本研究發現不同的自傷方式與不同的動機、所處的自傷前情緒有關，且不同的自我傷害動機在情緒強度特質、情緒調節困難、負向情緒和自傷方式上會呈現出不同的樣貌。 / The purpose of this study was to explore the motivations, the phenomenon, and the function of deliberate self-harm behaviors(DSH), and based on these, to clarify emotional contents behind DSH, including positive affect intensity, negative affect intensity, serenity, experiential avoidance and the emotional regulation ability. Besides, the study investigated the classification of the motivations of DSH by exploratory factor analysis, and accordingly discussed whether the affect categories and the affect intensity resulted from the motivations of DSH were different, and whether the motivations of DSH resulted in significantly different using of methods and frequencies, moreover, the emotional dysregulation. The study was based on questionnaires, and the participants were 839 students from a private senior high school , including vocational schools. Data obtained were analyzed by descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, t-test, factor analysis (FA), logistic regression, and hierarchical regression analysis. The main results were as follows: First, the results supported that DSH has regulative function on negative affect, and experiential avoidance influenced DSH limitedly. Second, according to factor analysis, the motivations of DSH were classified into four categories: interpersonal influence, negative affect modulation, control, and negative self-evaluation. Moreover, nonacceptance of the emotion dysregulation could successfully distinguish students with DSH from students with no history of DSH in the past 1 year. Both intensity of motivations and impulse of the emotion dysregulation could reliably predict DSH’s frequency. Finally, different methods of DSH correlated to different motivations and different emotions before DSH, and there were various representations of affect intensity, emotion dysregulation, and methods depends on different motivations.

Clark與Watson（1991）焦慮與憂鬱的三元模式及後續相關理論（Mineka, Watson, & Clark, 1998）對焦慮疾患與憂鬱疾患的高共病率現象提出了解釋：兩疾患高共病率之因乃共同擁有負向情感共同因子，而憂鬱疾患因擁有低正向情感特殊因子使之與焦慮疾患有所區辨。然而透過文獻回顧已知社交互動焦慮疾患與憂鬱疾患皆擁有高負向情感與低正向情感兩類因子（Hughes, Heimberg, Coles, Gibb, Liebowitz, & Schneier, 2006），故目前依三元模式及其相關文獻的架構（Brown, Chorpita, & Barlow, 1998; Hughes et al., 2006; Kashdan, 2002），尚未找出得以區辨社交互動焦慮、憂鬱兩疾患不同之因子。本研究即以三元模式裡已架構的一般因子負向情感、特殊因子正向情感，再加入特殊因子害怕負向評價、以及獨特因子害怕正向評價，來建構社交互動焦慮與憂鬱的階層特徵預測模式：負向情感與正向情感屬於高階因子，為影響著社交互動焦慮與憂鬱的脆弱因子；害怕負向評價與害怕正向評價屬為低階因子，是受到社交互動焦慮與憂鬱影響的症狀向度，其中害怕正向評價即具有能區分社交互動焦慮與憂鬱兩疾患不同之區分因子概念，屬於社交互動焦慮的獨特因子。本研究主要以大學部學生為樣本，共計收取566份問卷，再進行結構方程模式統計分析。結果支持社交互動焦慮與憂鬱的階層特徵預測模式之架構，害怕正向評價為社交互動焦慮的獨特因子，能作為社交互動焦慮、憂鬱間的區分因子。然而本研究假設之一：兩疾患對害怕負向評價此特徵的預測力不同，則在統計分析中未達顯著。最後，提出本研究貢獻與其在臨床上的應用，並進一步探討本研究可能的限制，以及未來研究方向。 / Clark and Watson’s (1991) tripartitle model of anxiety and depression and Mineka, Watson, and Clark’s (1998) an integrative hierarchical model of mood and anxiety disorders explain why the comorbility of anxiety and depression (unipolar mood disorders) is high: the reason of high comorbility of anxiety and depression is these two kinds of disorders contain commom factor—negative affect. Besides low positive affect can differentiates depression from anxiety,that is depression contains low positive affect, but anxiety doesn’t. But from research review, both social interaction anxiety and depression associate with negative affect and low positive affect (Hughes, Heimberg, Coles, Gibb, Liebowitz, & Schneier, 2006). Given this finding, on the structure of tripartite model and other relevant studies (Brown, Chorpita, & Barlow, 1998; Hughes et al., 2006; Kashdan, 2002 ), until now the differential factor of social interaction anxiety and depression is not found. In this study, the factors of tripartite model: a general factor—negative affect, and a specific factor—positive affect, are included. Besides, a specific factor—fear of negative evaluation, and a unique factor—fear of positive evaluation, also are added to our research to build the hierarchical characteristic predictor model of social interaction anxiety and depression. In the hierarchical characteristic predictor model, negative affect and positive affect are higher order factors that influence and could be vulnerabilities to social interaction anxiety and depression; fear of negative evaluation and fear of positive evaluation are lower order factors that are influenced by social interaction anxiety and depression and are dimension of symptoms. Fear of positive evaluation is a unique factor of social interaction anxiety, it accounts for the diversity of these two kinds of disorders and is a differentiable key factor. The participants were college students, and the sample consisted of 566 individuals. The data were examined by structural equation modeling. The results were that most of the hypotheses of the hierarchical characteristic predictor model of social interaction anxiety and depression were supported by data analysis. One of the hypotheses: fear of positive evaluation is a unique factor of social interaction anxiety and is a key factor that can distinct social interaction anxiety from depression , was also proved. But one of the other hypotheses: fear of negative evaluation containing amounts of variance attributable to social interaction anxiety and to depression are different; social interaction anxiety contains a more component of fear of negative evaluation than depression does, in this study, the difference was not significant different. Finally, discussing this study’s contribution, practical application in treatment, and the limitations, we give some directions and suggestions for the future research.

臨床研究發現，提高自我注意容易提高個體的負向情緒，反之，提高負向情緒容易觸發個體的自我注意程度，而高自我注意、負向情緒又正是憂鬱者的主要特徵。由於高自我注意跟負向情緒具有負相關，再根據過去文獻分析，推論高自我注意跟負向情緒之間可能具有共變關係。 循著Carver & Scheier的自我調適理論、Pyszczynski & Greenberg的憂鬱者的自我調適維持理論、Higgins的自我落差理論等脈絡前行，並分析有關目標設定、自我效能、憂鬱者對自我表現之主觀感受、自我滿意度等研究後，發現憂鬱者內在傾向於設定自己無法達成的目標，因此容易產生「目標--現況之間具有落差」的現象。本研究主張，差距現象乃是憂鬱者之高自我注意、負向情緒關係的中介因素，並將差距現象區分為客觀差距（事前自我效能評估--目標設定）、主觀差距（事後自我效能評估--主觀感受）。這兩者可能影響自我注意、負向情緒之關係。基於研究興趣，再探討「事前自我效能評估--實際自我效能」差距與「事後自我效能評估--實際自我效能」差距，這兩者並不會影響自我注意、負向情緒之關係。 本研究為了解自我注意、負向情緒、差距現象三者之關係，針對輕度憂鬱、一般大學生，以社交表現（與陌生人初次之談話）為主題，設計兩個實驗，探討（一）自我注意、負向情緒是否具有共變關係。（二）輕度憂鬱大學生在社交方面是否具有差距現象。（三）輕度憂鬱大學生的差距現象，是否為自我注意、負向情緒之共變關係之中介因素。（四）輕度憂鬱大學生的實際社交表現是否受到差距現象的影響。 根據本研究的實驗結果發現： （一）輕度憂鬱大學生之自我注意與負向情緒之間具有負相關，但在實驗操弄的情況下，兩者並沒有明顯共變關係。 （二）輕度憂鬱大學生在社交表現方面，和一般大學生大致相同，沒有顯著的客觀、主觀差距現象。而造成差距現象不明顯的原因，在於憂鬱大學生的社交表現一樣好、一樣受歡迎。然而憂鬱大學生對自己表現之評分較一般大學生為差，顯示憂鬱大學生的社交自信不足。 （三）輕度憂鬱大學生之客觀、主觀差距現象不構成高自我注意與負向情緒之中介因素。然而，憂鬱大學生對自我表現的主觀評價與滿意度確實顯著低於一般大學生，顯出憂鬱者習慣自我貶低的特質。 （四）輕度憂鬱大學生之社交表現並不受客觀、主觀差距現象之影響。 （五）在「事前自我效能評估--實際自我效能」差距與「事後自我效能評估--實際自我效能」差距方面，憂鬱大學生之差距量皆顯著小於非憂鬱大學生，顯示自評的社交實力與實際社交實力仍稍有不同，且一般大學生對自評社交能力的高估情況較顯著，反映出社交自信較憂鬱大學生高。 由於實驗結果並不支持本研究之假設，探討其可能原因為： （一）受試者特性：本研究所抽樣之政大學生之憂鬱程度相當輕微，而且在社交表現上並不比同輩差，因此在社交上之差距現象不明顯，無法看出差距現象是否足以構成自我注意、負向情緒之中介因素。另外，不同受試者具有不同的先天自我注意傾向，可能影響實驗結果。 （二）自我注意的內涵：本實驗操弄之自我注意採用「編故事」方式進行，並不會引發個體的挫折，因此無法引起強烈情緒變動。 （三）實驗測量的問題：以實驗操弄雖能暫時改變個體之情緒與注意力，然而操弄所得的情緒與注意力很容易受到外在干擾而改變、或隨著時間變化而消退。 綜合以上結果與探討，對未來研究之建議如下： 建議未來針對憂鬱症狀較高之憂鬱者，選定不同的實驗作業，在受試者不知情的情況下，利用非紙筆類的測量工具，在數個時間點重覆測量情緒與注意力的變化，再度檢驗差距現象對憂鬱者「自我注意--負向情緒」之共變關係。

The social web has emerged concurrent with a decline in Americans' community involvement and number of close friendships. Hundreds of millions of people connect online, but they appear to have fewer confidants and trust each other less. However, contrasting research finds that web users have better social integration and stronger relationships than their offline counterparts. This thesis resolves these contradictory views through a detailed examination of social network site (SNS) use and changes in relationships and individual well-being. The research is conducted at multiple levels looking at how different types of SNS use—direct interaction with others and more “passive consumption” of social news—influence the number and quality of individuals’ social ties and their aggregate social capital and well-being, including perceived social support, happiness, and physical health. The studies combine objective measures of SNS use (communication activity from the server logs of a popular social networking site) with self-reports of tie strength and well-being to accurately differentiate types of use with different partners. Longitudinal methods reveal how well-being changes over time with SNS use and are moderated by personal characteristics such as social communication skill and recent job loss.

This study investigated the subjective well-being of female strippers. The effect that certain variables namely, self-esteem, general health, self-efficacy, perceived social support and sense of coherence had on subjective well-being and the independent components of subjective well-being, namely life satisfaction and positive and negative affect, were investigated. The sample consisted of 75 female strippers and was a consequence of a combination of purposive and convenience non-probability sampling. These women were employed at Teazers - a chain of strip clubs in Gauteng, South Africa. Information was gathered through self-reported questionnaires with quantifiable scales. The results of the regression models showed that life satisfaction depends on perceived social support, but positive and negative affect depends on self-esteem and general health. If life satisfaction and positive and negative affect is combined into a measurement of subjective well-being, 6.7% of the total variance in subjective well-being is uniquely explained by self-esteem. / Psychology / M. Sc. (Psychology)