In march 2001 and fourteen years later in march 2015, destructive acts were carried out against some of our most revered and treasured religious sites. These cultural heritages were demolished in modern iconoclastic acts by extremist groups in Afghanistan and Iraq. This essay examines the demolition of the two statues depicting the Buddha as well as the events in Iraq during 2015. Specifically the destruction of the museum of Mosul, the ancient city of Nimrud as well as other sites of cultural heritages. The acts were carried out by two groups who in very different ways revere their actions as connected to the sacred. On the one hand this was done to communicate devotion towards the divine. The other action was done in order to destroy the sacred of the perceived enemy as well as to enhance the iconoclastic groups' own theocracy. The two groups have a sense of historical connection with similar acts of iconoclastic destructions. Historical events will be discussed in relation to their modern counterparts.                       This essay attempts to locate the theoretical core of these events and tries to explain why they might be regarded as emanating from the theocratic functional systems' need to restore and reproduce itself. I will also, like the responsible groups themselves, set the actions in relation to the relevant international context as well as the historical parallels of iconoclasm. The tendencies to regard these matters as a destructive act based upon absolute reverence to the divine are the most frequent reactions usually brought to the surface regarding these actions. This essay describes the relevant context regarding the destruction of these religious monuments and determines what type of binary codes these actions revolves around. I also add a possible environment of the recipient, which can either be profane or transcendent. The conclusion is that the events in Bamiyan, March 2001, are best viewed as instrumental orientations of actions where the greater goal is the purpose of the act. The environment which the actors attempts to communicate with is the international community and therefore the profane. The events in Mosul/Nimrud on the other hand might more accurately be described as expressive actions where the purpose of the actions are fulfilled by the act itself. The environment which the act attempts to communicate with is in this case a divine entity and therefore the sacred.

The present study was intended as a new approach to the study of the military equipment of the Late Assyrian period which has traditionally relied upon the pictorial representations of the palace reliefs. By examining extant artifacts from the first millennium in their own right, with the reliefs merely serving to contextualize them, a truer understanding of Assyrian arms and armour can be gathered. This is necessary because the artwork only provides us with a filtered view of the real world, the reliefs are as much works of propaganda as of history. The approach taken here is to first examine the existing weapons typologically, and then to evaluate whether such weapon types appear to be accurately represented in contemporary artwork. Textual sources are also used where they can aid in the discussion. Five categories of arms and armour were studied: swords and daggers, spearpoints, shields, armour and helmets. The quality and quantity of the items in these categories varied significantly, providing for a much better representative sample of some items than others. Further questions concerning the possible ritual, rather than military, use of some of the existing artifacts were raised. However, the main conclusions reached were that the reliefs suffer not only from a propagandistic viewpoint which sometimes obscures the reality of Assyrian warfare, but that they also suffer from artistic license and spatial restraints, the difficulties in representing three-dimensional objects in a two-dimensional manner, the possible unfamiliarity of the artists with changing military technology and methods of construction, and finally, our inability to understand artistic short-hand for what were commonplace objects to the contemporary viewer. These have led to misunderstanding both as to the dating and chronological changes in weaponry, and also to the tactics used by the Late Assyrian military. This study of the artifacts themselves reveals a more mundane, utilitarian, and conservative military force which shows both a basic homogeneousness throughout the empire, and the myriad tiny variables of an army on the move drawing weapons and troops from many regions.

The present study was intended as a new approach to the study of the military equipment of the Late Assyrian period which has traditionally relied upon the pictorial representations of the palace reliefs. By examining extant artifacts from the first millennium in their own right, with the reliefs merely serving to contextualize them, a truer understanding of Assyrian arms and armour can be gathered. This is necessary because the artwork only provides us with a filtered view of the real world, the reliefs are as much works of propaganda as of history. The approach taken here is to first examine the existing weapons typologically, and then to evaluate whether such weapon types appear to be accurately represented in contemporary artwork. Textual sources are also used where they can aid in the discussion. Five categories of arms and armour were studied: swords and daggers, spearpoints, shields, armour and helmets. The quality and quantity of the items in these categories varied significantly, providing for a much better representative sample of some items than others. Further questions concerning the possible ritual, rather than military, use of some of the existing artifacts were raised. However, the main conclusions reached were that the reliefs suffer not only from a propagandistic viewpoint which sometimes obscures the reality of Assyrian warfare, but that they also suffer from artistic license and spatial restraints, the difficulties in representing three-dimensional objects in a two-dimensional manner, the possible unfamiliarity of the artists with changing military technology and methods of construction, and finally, our inability to understand artistic short-hand for what were commonplace objects to the contemporary viewer. These have led to misunderstanding both as to the dating and chronological changes in weaponry, and also to the tactics used by the Late Assyrian military. This study of the artifacts themselves reveals a more mundane, utilitarian, and conservative military force which shows both a basic homogeneousness throughout the empire, and the myriad tiny variables of an army on the move drawing weapons and troops from many regions.

Ce travail présente une nouvelle analyse des bas-reliefs des palais néoassyriens du premier millénaire av. J.-C. Elle combine une analyse spatiale, basée sur la restitution à l’aide de l’imagerie 3D des palais d’Assurnazirpal II et Sargon II, qui permet la remise en situation des images dans l’architecture, et une analyse sémiologique.L’analyse de la structure de ces images, couplée à une étude sémantique des textes des palais qui leurs sont associés permet de montrer que les décors, ainsi que les textes, forment des portraits de rois, dont la synthèse se trouve dans la salle du trône, centre du palais et du royaume, les thèmes des images présents dans les autres salles étant concentrés dans celle-ci.Mais les portraits ainsi mis en évidence sont partagés entre un portrait de la royauté, traditionnel et stéréotypé, et le portrait du roi. Ils se situent également entre deux conceptions du temps, le premier circulaire, manifesté par les images faisant le tour des salles, ainsi que par l’inscription des Fastes chez Sargon II racontant les campagnes militaires du roi selon un découpage géographique, et un temps linéaire, manifesté par les textes des Annales.Le portrait du roi se ferait ainsi dans ce temps linéaire, et le portrait de la royauté dans le temps cyclique, les événements s’y reproduisant, sources de traditions, comme la forme des salles du trône, les thèmes utilisés et les conventions employées dans la représentation. Le portrait du roi se manifestant dans le choix de tel ou tel thème au détriment des autres, comme les scènes rituelles sous Assurnazirpal II, qui laissent la place à la chasse au lion sous Assurbanipal, concrétisant un éloignement du rituel dans les images entamé sous Sargon II. / This work presents a new analysis of low reliefs of neo-Assyrian palaces from the first millennium B.C. It combines a spatial analysis, based on 3D restitutions of Assurnazirpal II and Sargon II palaces, which permits to replace images in the architecture, and a semiological analysis.Structural analysis of images associated with a semantic study of texts present in palaces too, permits to demonstrate that the decoration and texts make portraits of kings. Throne rooms are synthesis of these portraits, as centre of the palace and kingdom, themes of images in other rooms being concentrated in this one.But these portraits are divided between a portrait of royalty, traditional and stereotyped, and the portrait of the king. They are so between two conceptions of time. One circular, shows by images going round rooms, and by the Display Inscription from the palace of Sargon II which tells of king’s military campaigns according to a geographical cutting. The other time is linear, as showed in annals of kings.The portrait of the king would take place in this linear time, and the portrait of kingship in the cyclical one, events to recur in, sources of traditions, like the throne room plans, themes used and conventions employed in representations. The portrait of the king isapparent in themes chosen among the others. So, ritual scenes with Assurnazirpal II left place to hunt scenes with Assurbanipal, who concretizes a distance with ritual images started under Sargon II.

The purpose of my study is to analyze Assyrian sculptures in the palace of Nimrud from throne room of Aššur-nāṣir-apli northwest palace. My research will be to compare sculptures with a theoretical as well as practical issue in the design of the galleries. Images of supernatural beings would be set up at entrances to palaces and temples. Assyrians called sculptures Lamassū (from written Sumerian references LAM(M) (A) lord of horizons, guardian of the Assyrian Gate. Lamassū are both flanked at the doorways from the throne room of Aššur-nāṣir-apli`s northwest palace. The exact meaning is not clear, but Lamassū can be taken as representing an Assyrian protective divinity. The first method in my analysis combines the need to establish the subjective meaning of objects as objective reality that is their meaning for digital design. My thesis aims to define a specific iconographic theme, centered around sculptures based on similarities in the composition of each scene in the selection of images on monuments in Nimrud. Digitalization projects provide an angle from mergers areas as architecture and archeology through images. With the project historians can use traditional documents and images to reconstruct the past and palaces. The analysis takes as an example of the importance of Digital archeology in understanding the role of artefacts and the role as a function of the specific purpose or activities for which such present or used in museums. We construct meaning as the basis for action, and not only from concrete material, but also from the matrix of symbols that are available from within culture to interpret the substantive conditions. Digital archeology is associated with technology that provides a picture of the physical environment. The digital images show the limit between design of the architectural spaces from the British Museum and the old spaces in Nimrud.

Cette étude traite du vieillissement des ouvrages en pierres calcaires en interaction avec leur environnement, en se basant à la fois sur la caractérisation des matériaux et des conditions climatiques locales. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier le rôle des conditions climatiques sur la dégradation des pierres par une estimation quantitative du poids des différents processus physiques de dégradation : gel-dégel, condensation and dilatations hygro-thermiques empêchées. Deux sites majeurs ont été sélectionnés : le Château de Chambord en France et le site d’Al-Namrud en Irak, qui est une ancienne capitale assyrienne datant de 1280 BC. Les matériaux français étudiés sont le tuffeau et la pierre de Richemont, qui a été abondamment utilisée comme pierre de substitution durant les restaurations du 20ème siècle. Les matériaux irakiens utilisés sont issus de prélèvements sur des pierres d’origines altérées, des pierres d’origine saines, ainsi que la pierre candidate pour la restauration du site. L’approche choisie pour l’estimation du risque d’endommagement commence par la réalisation d’une campagne expérimentale de caractérisation multi-physiques et multi-échelles des pierres calcaires utilisées à Chambord, ajouté à la collecte des données météorologiques à Chambord grâce à une station et des mesures dans la pierre. L’estimation du risque d’endommagement est obtenue en combinant l’utilisation des données climatiques et de la caractérisation des matériaux, grâce au calcul de l’impact des différents processus physiques de dégradation, qui a nécessité plusieurs développements méthodologiques. La méthodologie proposée pour l’estimation du risque d’endommagement est ensuite appliquée au site d’Al-Namrud. Finalement, un carnet de santé numérique préliminaire du plus édifiant monument d’Al-Namrud – la Ziggurat – est réalisé pour son diagnostic de durabilité. / This study deals with the ageing of limestone structures as a result of the interaction with their environment. It is based on the characterization of both the material and the local climatic conditions. The objective of this thesis is to study the role of climatic conditions in the degradation of stone by quantitative estimation of the weight of the different physical weathering processes: freezing-thawing, condensation and restrained hygro-thermal dilations. Two major historic sites were selected: the Château of Chambord in France and the site of Al-Nimrud City in Iraq, an ancient Assyrian capital, built in 1280 BCE. The French materials studied are tuffeau and Richemont stone, extensively used as a substitute for tuffeau restoration during part of the 20th century. The Iraqi materials studied are samples cored in situ in original weathered stones, original healthy stones, and the stone that could be used as a substitute for restoration. The approach chosen for damage risk assessment starts by the realization of a multiphysics and multiscale experimental characterization campaign of the limestone used at Chambord, added to the collection of meteorological data at Chambord thanks to a weather station supplemented by situ stone measurements. The damage risk assessment is obtained by the combined use of climate data and material characterization, through the calculation of the impact of thedifferent physical weathering processes, which required some methodological developments. The proposed damage risk assessment methodology is then applied to Al-Nimrud site. Finally, a preliminary digital health record of the most prominent monument of Al-Nimrud - the Al-Ziggurat - is carried out to diagnose its durability.

Die Bybel is die boek wat die meeste gelees word en tog is dit moeilik om die leefwêreld van daardie era te verstaan. My doel is om ’n nuwe blik te gee op ’n paar Ou-Testamentiese simbole. Die ontdekking van ivoorobjekte in die middel negentiende eeu in Nimrud se paleise het tot groot opwinding gelei, aangesien dit met die literatuur ooreenstem. Die ivoorstukke het ’n “verhaal” kom vertel. Deur die streke se kuns te bestudeer kan ons ’n prentjie vorm van die kuns wat in die Ystertydperk in Mesopotamië en Palestina se paleise en welaf huise voorgekom het. Die ikonografie word ontrafel deur ’n paar ivoorstukke te “lees.” Ikonografie is die beskrywing en verklaring van beelde wat op bepaalde onderwerpe betrekking het. Sekere beelde kom herhaaldelik voor in Mesopotamië. In dié studie word hoofsaaklik die Gevleuelde Wesens, die Boom van Lewe, die Gevleuelde Sonskyf asook Rosette beskryf. / The Bible is widely read but it is difficult to understand the world and culture of the era that it is set in. It is my aim to provide new insight into a few Old Testament verses with their symbolic meaning. When ivory was discovered at Nimrud the discovery elicited huge excitement. The ivory pieces came to tell a story. Through studying the art of the different cultures a picture begins to appear of the palaces and homes of the wealthy in the Levant. The iconography could be “read.” Iconography is the science of interpreting the message the art wants to convey to the viewer. A few images are repeatedly showing up in the Levant during the Iron Age. In this study I am focusing mainly on The Tree of Life, the Winged Disc, the Rosette and Winged Spiritual Beings. I am attempting to discern the meaning behind these images. / Biblical & Ancient Studies / M.A. (Ou Nabye-Oosterse Studies)

Die Bybel is die boek wat die meeste gelees word en tog is dit moeilik om die leefwêreld van daardie era te verstaan. My doel is om ’n nuwe blik te gee op ’n paar Ou-Testamentiese simbole. Die ontdekking van ivoorobjekte in die middel negentiende eeu in Nimrud se paleise het tot groot opwinding gelei, aangesien dit met die literatuur ooreenstem. Die ivoorstukke het ’n “verhaal” kom vertel. Deur die streke se kuns te bestudeer kan ons ’n prentjie vorm van die kuns wat in die Ystertydperk in Mesopotamië en Palestina se paleise en welaf huise voorgekom het. Die ikonografie word ontrafel deur ’n paar ivoorstukke te “lees.” Ikonografie is die beskrywing en verklaring van beelde wat op bepaalde onderwerpe betrekking het. Sekere beelde kom herhaaldelik voor in Mesopotamië. In dié studie word hoofsaaklik die Gevleuelde Wesens, die Boom van Lewe, die Gevleuelde Sonskyf asook Rosette beskryf. / The Bible is widely read but it is difficult to understand the world and culture of the era that it is set in. It is my aim to provide new insight into a few Old Testament verses with their symbolic meaning. When ivory was discovered at Nimrud the discovery elicited huge excitement. The ivory pieces came to tell a story. Through studying the art of the different cultures a picture begins to appear of the palaces and homes of the wealthy in the Levant. The iconography could be “read.” Iconography is the science of interpreting the message the art wants to convey to the viewer. A few images are repeatedly showing up in the Levant during the Iron Age. In this study I am focusing mainly on The Tree of Life, the Winged Disc, the Rosette and Winged Spiritual Beings. I am attempting to discern the meaning behind these images. / Biblical and Ancient Studies / M.A. (Ou Nabye-Oosterse Studies)

This thesis provides an overview of the engagement with the material culture of Assyria, unearthed in the Middle East from 1845 onwards by British and French archaeologists. It sets the artistic discovery of Assyria within the visual culture of the period through reference not only to painting but also to illustrated newspapers, books, journals, performances and popular entertainments. The thesis presents a more vigorous, interlinked, and widespread engagement than previous studies have indicated, primarily by providing a comprehensive corpus of artistic responses. The artistic connections between Britain and France were close. Works influenced by Assyria were published, exhibited and reviewed in the contemporary press, on both sides of the English Channel. Some artists, such as Gustave Doré, successfully maintained careers in both London and Paris. It is therefore often meaningless to speak of a wholly ‘French’ or ‘British’ reception, since these responses were coloured by artistic crosscurrents that operated in both directions, a crucial theme to be explored in this dissertation. In Britain, print culture also transported to the regions, away from large metropolitan centres, knowledge of Assyria and Assyrian-inspired art through its appeal to the market for biblical images. Assyria benefited from the explosion in graphical communication. This thesis examines the artistic response to Assyria within a chronological framework. It begins with an overview of the initial period in the 1850s that traces the first British discoveries. Chapter Two explores the different artistic turn Assyria took in the 1860s. Chapter Three deals with the French reception in the second half of the nineteenth century. Chapter Four concludes the British reception up to 1900, and Chapter Five deals with the twentieth century. The thesis contends that far from being a niche subject engaged with a particular group of artists, Assyrian art was a major rediscovery that affected all fields of visual culture in the nineteenth century.