Die gegenwärtige Vorstellung von Genexpression in Plastiden leitet sich von der Analyse weniger, individueller Gene ab und ist deshalb noch relativ lückenhaft. In dieser Arbeit sollte daher differenzierende RNA Sequenzierung- eine neue Methode, die zwischen prozessierten und Primärtranskripten unterscheiden kann, verwendet werden, um ein vollständigeres Bild des Transkriptionsprozesses und der RNA Prozessierung von Hordeum vulgare L. (Gerste) Chloroplasten zu erhalten. Plastidengene in höheren Pflanzen können sowohl von einer plastidenkodierten, bakterienähnlichen RNA-Polymerase (PEP), als auch von einer kernkodierten, phagenähnlichen RNA-Polymerase (NEP), die beide unterschiedliche Promotoren erkennen, abgelesen werden. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Verteilung von Transkriptionsstartstellen innerhalb des Plastidengenoms von grünen (reife Chloroplasten; Transkriptionsaktivität von PEP und NEP) und weißen Plastiden (Transkriptionsaktivität von NEP) der Gerstenmutantenlinie albostrians analysiert. Dies führte zu neuen Erkenntnissen bezüglich polymerasenspezifischer Genexpression in Plastiden. Auf Grundlage neuerer Arbeiten wird angenommen, daß nicht kodierende RNAs (ncRNAs) in Chloroplasten vorkommen. Die bisher verwendeten Methoden waren jedoch nicht geeignet, ncRNAs als Primärtranskripte zu identifizieren, die zumindest in Prokaryoten die häufigste Klasse von ncRNAs darstellen. In dieser Arbeit konnte durch dRNA-seq gezeigt werden, daß auch in Plastiden zahlreiche ncRNAs als Primärtranskripte generiert werden. Die wichtigsten Schritte im Prozess der mRNA Reifung in Plastiden sind 5´und 3´ Endformation und intercistronische Prozessierung. Vor Kurzem wurde gezeigt, daß ein PPR (Pentatricopeptide repeat) Protein zur Bildung der Ende von einigen prozessierten Plastiden mRNAs beiträgt, indem es als Hindernis für Exonukleasen wirkt. Mit dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, daß dies ein genereller Mechanismus zur Bildung prozessierter mRNA-Enden in Chloroplasten ist. / The current view on plastid gene expression is mainly based on the analysis of a few individual genes, and thus it is lacking in comprehensiveness. Here, a novel differential RNA-seq approach, designed to discriminate between primary and processed transcripts, was used to obtain a deeper insight into the plastid transcription and RNA maturation of mature barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) chloroplasts. Transcription in plastids of higher plants is dependent on two different transcription machineries, a plastid-encoded bacterial-type RNA polymerase (PEP) and a nuclear-encoded phage-type RNA polymerase (NEP), which recognize distinct types of promoters. This study provided a thorough investigation into the distribution of transcription start sites within the plastid genome of green (mature chloroplasts; transcription by both PEP and NEP) and white (PEP-deficient plastids; transcription by NEP) plastids of the barley line albostrians. This analysis led to new insights on polymerase specific gene expression in plastids. Recent studies have suggested that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are common in chloroplasts. However, they did not directly detect ncRNAs generated via transcription, the so far most abundant class of known regulatory ncRNAs in bacteria. Here, dRNA-seq analysis of the transcriptome of barley chloroplasts demonstrated the existence of numerous ncRNA generated via transcription of free-standing genes. Major events in plastid mRNA maturation include 5’ and 3’ processed end formation and intercistronic processing. Recently, a PPR (pentatricopeptide repeat) protein was shown to participate in the generation of several plastid mRNA processed ends by serving as a barrier to exonucleases. This study provided evidence for the global impact of this mechanism on processed termini formation in chloroplasts.

Le succès évolutif de la polyploïdie, notamment de l’allopolyploïdie (où la duplication de génome complet est associée à une hybridation entre génomes différenciés) est en partie lié au fait que cet événement s’accompagne de nombreux changements dans l'organisation du génome et la régulation de l'expression des gènes. On parle du « choc génomique » de l’hybridation interspécifique et de l’allopolyploïdie. Ces sources de diversité génétique, à la fois structurale et fonctionnelle, apparaissent utiles et nécessaires à l'adaptation et l’évolution des espèces. Alors que de nombreuses études portant sur la compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires à l’origine du succès des allopolyploïdes ont concerné les modifications de l’expression des gènes, mes travaux de thèse ont porté sur les agents non codants du génome que sont les éléments transposables et les petits ARN non codants. Le modèle d'étude est le colza (Brassica napus, AACC), espèce allotétraploïde issue de l'hybridation entre les espèces diploïdes navette (B. rapa, AA) et chou (B. oleracea, CC). Nous disposions de colzas néo-synthétisés, étudiés à différentes générations d’autofécondation, permettant de caractériser les changements génomiques accompagnant la formation puis l’évolution du génome néo-allopolyploïde. Une étude a tout d’abord été menée sur un élément transposable (ET) spécifique du génome C, Bot1, en vue d’identifier de nouvelles transpositions survenant chez les colzas néo-synthétisés par rapport aux parents diploïdes, par une approche SSAP. Quelques rares événements de transposition ont été identifiés. Ces résultats, confrontés à ceux obtenus sur deux autres ET, ont permis de mettre en évidence un impact modéré de l’allopolyploïdie sur la transposition de ces différents ET. Par contre, il est apparu que des changements de méthylation auraient accompagné cette allopolyploïdisation, sans doute à l’origine de la réactivation et la transposition de quelques copies de Bot1. Les petits ARN non codants ont été suggérés comme impliqués dans les différents événements génomiques accompagnant la formation d’un génome allopolyploïde. Pour étudier la dynamique d’expression des petits ARN chez des colzas néo-synthétisés pris à deux générations d’autofécondation (S1, S5) en comparaison de leurs parents diploïdes, j’ai exploité des données de séquençage haut débit obtenues pour 11 banques construites à partir des tiges de ces différents génotypes. J’ai ainsi démontré, qu’à une échelle globale, les petits ARN présentaient une réponse immédiate mais transitoire à l’événement d’allopolyploïdie. Les fractions particulièrement affectées par l’allopolyploïdie se sont révélées correspondre (1) à des petits ARN interférents dérivés d’éléments transposables avec une baisse de leur abondance en génération précoce S1, et (2) à des populations de petits ARN de 21 nucléotides exprimées uniquement de manière très précoce, de l’hybride F1 à la génération S1. Nous avons notamment identifié des transcrits de type viral correspondant à ces petits ARN de 21-nt, et présentant les mêmes profils d’expression (de l’hybride F1 à la génération S1), suggérant une réactivation d’éléments viraux endogènes (EVE) en réponse à l’hybridation et l’allopolyploïdie. L’ensemble de mon étude a démontré la mise en place d’une succession des voies de régulation par petits ARN où ET et EVE, réactivés au niveau transcriptionnel, sont immédiatement soumis à une répression post-transcriptionnelle (PTGS), renforcée ensuite par une répression de leur transcription (TGS). L’hypothèse d’une absence de cette régulation par petits ARN lors des phénomènes de nécrose et létalité hybride, amène à envisager ces populations de petits ARN comme les clés de la réussite de la formation d’un génome hybride, où la répression immédiate et efficace des ET et autres endovirus, réactivés suite au choc génomique, se révèle être une nécessité. / The evolutionary success of polyploid species is partly due to the dynamic changes in genome organization and gene expression patterns that occur at the onset of the polyploid formation. These changes are promoted by the merging of divergent genomes into a single nucleus (i.e. allopolyploidy) that causes a “genomic shock”; they are thought to provide a rich source of new genetic material upon which selection can act to promote adaptation and evolution. Many studies have thus aimed to uncover molecular mechanisms that are responsible for the evolutionary success of allopolyploid species, most of them focusing on gene expression changes. In the present PhD thesis, my interest has been concentrated on the non-coding components of the genome: transposable elements and small non-coding RNAs. My study involves oilseed rape (Brassica napus, AACC), a relatively young allopolyploid species that originated from hybridizations between B. rapa (AA) and B. oleracea (CC). Specifically, I have used resynthesized B. napus polyploids advanced by self-pollination of single plants for several generations; I have analyzed these plants at different generations for genomic changes accompanying polyploid formation and subsequent evolution. In a first part, sequence-specific amplification polymorphism (SSAP) targeting the C genome-specific transposable element Bot1, was used to evaluate transposition rate of Bot1 in resynthesized B. napus in comparison with the diploid parents. Only a few transposition events were identified. When combined with the results obtained for two other TEs, this work suggests that allopolyploidy has only a moderate impact on TE transposition and restructuring. The changes observed in SSAP profiles led us to hypothesize that some of them resulted from changes in DNA methylation, resulting in rare but highly specific TE activation and transposition. In a second part, I have concentrated on small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs), which are thought to mediate different aspects of the response to the “genomic shock” induced by allopolyploid formation. Comprehensive analyses of sRNA expression in resynthesized B. napus allopolyploids have been carried out by deep sequencing sRNAs from 11 libraries prepared from stems of three allotetraploids (surveyed at the two generations S1 and S5) and the two diploid parents. Characterization of sRNA distributions in these plants indicates that sRNAs show an immediate but transient response to allopolyploidy. The sRNAs derived from transposable elements (down-regulated in the S1) or targeting unknown sequences (no Blast hit against any available public database) were particularly affected. The use of B. napus mRNAseq data revealed that these latest unknown candidates, which are 21-nt long and over-expressed in the earliest generations (F1, S0, S1) were derived from endogenous viral elements (EVE). We confirmed that these EVEs showed the same expression patterns as the 21-nt long sRNAs that specifically target them (over-expression in the F1, S0 and S1). These results suggest that (at least) some EVEs might be reactivated as a response to the merging of divergent genomes (in interspecific hybrids and newly formed allopolyploids). Altogether, our results have demonstrated a succession of sRNA pathways that counteract the reactivation of some specific TEs and/or EVEs at the onset of polyploid formation; reactivated TEs and/or EVEs being immediately repressed at the post-transcriptional level (PTGS), and then fully repressed by transcriptional gene silencing (TGS) in the subsequent generations. Such data lead to hypothesize that sRNAs are essential to overcome interspecific hybrid incompatibilities due to the uncontrolled and deleterious reactivation of TEs / EVEs. Therefore, sRNAs should be considered as the guardians of genome integrity even in newly-formed allopolyploids.

Em procariotos, RNAs antisense (asRNAs) constituem a classe de RNAs não codificantes (ncRNAs) mais numerosa detectada por métodos de avaliação de transcritoma em larga escala. Apesar da grande abundância, pouco se sabe sobre mecanismos regulatórios e aspectos da conservação evolutiva dessas moléculas, principalmente em arquéias, onde o mecanismo de degradação de RNAs dupla fita (dsRNAs) é um fenômeno pouco conhecido. No presente estudo, utilizando dados de dRNA-seq, identificamos 1626 inícios de transcrição primários antisense (aTSSs) no genoma de Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1, importante organismo modelo para estudos de regulação gênica no domínio Archaea. Integrando dados de expressão gênica obtidos a partir de 18 bibliotecas de RNA-seq paired-end, anotamos 846 asRNAs a partir dos aTSSs mapeados. Encontramos asRNAs em ~21% dos genes anotados, alguns desses relacionados a importantes características desse organismo como: codificadores de proteínas que constituem vesículas de gás e da proteína bacteriorodopsina, além de vários genes relacionados a maquinaria de tradução e transposases. Além desses, encontramos asRNAs em genes pertencentes a sistemas de toxinas-antitoxinas do tipo II e utilizando dados públicos de dRNA-seq, evidenciamos que esse é um fenômeno que ocorre em bactérias e arquéias. A interação de um ncRNA com seu RNA alvo pode ser dependente de proteínas, em arquéias, a proteína LSm é uma chaperona de RNA homóloga a Hfq de bactérias, implicada no controle pós-transcricional. Utilizamos dados de RIP-seq de RNAs imunoprecipitados com LSm e identificamos 91 asRNAs interagindo com essa proteína, para 81 desses, o mRNA do gene sense também foi encontrado interagindo. Buscando por aTSSs presentes nas mesmas regiões de genes ortólogos, identificamos 160 aTSSs que dão origem a asRNAs em H. salinarum possivelmente conservados em Haloferax volcanii. A expressão dos asRNAs anotados foi avaliada ao longo de uma curva de crescimento e em uma linhagem knockout de um gene que codifica uma RNase R, possível degradadora de dsRNAs em arquéias. Encontramos um total de 144 asRNAs diferencialmente expressos ao longo da curva de crescimento, para 56 desses o gene sense também está diferencialmente expresso, caracterizando possíveis mecanismos de regulação em cis por esses RNAs. Na linhagem knockout, encontramos cinco asRNAs diferencialmente expressos e apenas para um desses o gene sense também está diferencialmente expresso, resultado que não nos permitiu inferir um possível papel de degradação de dsRNAs da RNAse R em H. salinarum NRC-1. Nesse trabalho apresentamos um mapeamento completo do transcritoma antisense primário de H. salinarum NRC-1 com resultados que consistem em um importante passo na direção da compreensão do envolvimento da transcrição antisense na regulação gênica pós-transcricional desse organismo modelo do terceiro domínio da vida. / Antisense RNAs (asRNAs) constitute the most numerous class of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) detected by transcriptome highthroughput methods in prokaryotes. Despite this abundance, little is known about regulatory mechanisms and evolutionary aspects of these molecules, mainly in archaea, where the mechanism of double-strand RNA (dsRNA) degradation remains poorly understood. In this study, using dRNA-seq data, we identified 1626 antisense transcription start sites (aTSSs) in the genome of Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1, an important model organism for gene expression regulation studies in Archaea. By integrating gene expression data from 18 RNA-seq paired-end libraries, we were able to annotate 846 asRNAs from mapped aTSSs. We found asRNAs in ~21% of annotated genes including genes related to important characteristics of this organism, such as: gas vesicle proteins, bacteriorhodopsin, translation machinery and transposases. We also found asRNAs in type II toxin-antitoxin systems and using public dRNA-seq data, we show evidences that this phenomenon might be conserved in archaea and bacteria. The interaction of a ncRNA with its target may depend on intermediary proteins action. In archaea, the LSm protein is a RNA chaperone homologous to bacterial Hfq, involved in post-transcriptional regulation. We used RIP-seq data from RNAs immunoprecipitated with LSm and identified 91 asRNAs interacting with this protein, for 81 of these the mRNA of the sense gene is also interacting. We searched for aTSSs present in the same region of orthologous genes in the Haloferax volcanii. We found 160 aTSSs that originated asRNAs in H. salinarum NRC-1 that might be conserved in this two archaea. The expression of annotated asRNAs was analyzed over a growth curve and in a knockout strain for RNase R gene. We found 144 asRNA differentially expressed over the growth curve, for 56 of these the sense gene was also differentially expressed, characterizing possible cis regulators asRNAs. In the knockout strain we found five differentially expressed asRNAs and only one asRNA/gene pair, this result does not allow us to infer a dsRNA degradation in vivo activity for this RNase in H. salinarum NRC- 1. This work contributes to the discovery of the antisense transcriptome in H. salinarum NRC- 1 a relevant step to uncover the post-transcriptional gene regulatory network in this archaeon.

Em procariotos, RNAs antisense (asRNAs) constituem a classe de RNAs não codificantes (ncRNAs) mais numerosa detectada por métodos de avaliação de transcritoma em larga escala. Apesar da grande abundância, pouco se sabe sobre mecanismos regulatórios e aspectos da conservação evolutiva dessas moléculas, principalmente em arquéias, onde o mecanismo de degradação de RNAs dupla fita (dsRNAs) é um fenômeno pouco conhecido. No presente estudo, utilizando dados de dRNA-seq, identificamos 1626 inícios de transcrição primários antisense (aTSSs) no genoma de Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1, importante organismo modelo para estudos de regulação gênica no domínio Archaea. Integrando dados de expressão gênica obtidos a partir de 18 bibliotecas de RNA-seq paired-end, anotamos 846 asRNAs a partir dos aTSSs mapeados. Encontramos asRNAs em ~21% dos genes anotados, alguns desses relacionados a importantes características desse organismo como: codificadores de proteínas que constituem vesículas de gás e da proteína bacteriorodopsina, além de vários genes relacionados a maquinaria de tradução e transposases. Além desses, encontramos asRNAs em genes pertencentes a sistemas de toxinas-antitoxinas do tipo II e utilizando dados públicos de dRNA-seq, evidenciamos que esse é um fenômeno que ocorre em bactérias e arquéias. A interação de um ncRNA com seu RNA alvo pode ser dependente de proteínas, em arquéias, a proteína LSm é uma chaperona de RNA homóloga a Hfq de bactérias, implicada no controle pós-transcricional. Utilizamos dados de RIP-seq de RNAs imunoprecipitados com LSm e identificamos 91 asRNAs interagindo com essa proteína, para 81 desses, o mRNA do gene sense também foi encontrado interagindo. Buscando por aTSSs presentes nas mesmas regiões de genes ortólogos, identificamos 160 aTSSs que dão origem a asRNAs em H. salinarum possivelmente conservados em Haloferax volcanii. A expressão dos asRNAs anotados foi avaliada ao longo de uma curva de crescimento e em uma linhagem knockout de um gene que codifica uma RNase R, possível degradadora de dsRNAs em arquéias. Encontramos um total de 144 asRNAs diferencialmente expressos ao longo da curva de crescimento, para 56 desses o gene sense também está diferencialmente expresso, caracterizando possíveis mecanismos de regulação em cis por esses RNAs. Na linhagem knockout, encontramos cinco asRNAs diferencialmente expressos e apenas para um desses o gene sense também está diferencialmente expresso, resultado que não nos permitiu inferir um possível papel de degradação de dsRNAs da RNAse R em H. salinarum NRC-1. Nesse trabalho apresentamos um mapeamento completo do transcritoma antisense primário de H. salinarum NRC-1 com resultados que consistem em um importante passo na direção da compreensão do envolvimento da transcrição antisense na regulação gênica pós-transcricional desse organismo modelo do terceiro domínio da vida. / Antisense RNAs (asRNAs) constitute the most numerous class of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) detected by transcriptome highthroughput methods in prokaryotes. Despite this abundance, little is known about regulatory mechanisms and evolutionary aspects of these molecules, mainly in archaea, where the mechanism of double-strand RNA (dsRNA) degradation remains poorly understood. In this study, using dRNA-seq data, we identified 1626 antisense transcription start sites (aTSSs) in the genome of Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1, an important model organism for gene expression regulation studies in Archaea. By integrating gene expression data from 18 RNA-seq paired-end libraries, we were able to annotate 846 asRNAs from mapped aTSSs. We found asRNAs in ~21% of annotated genes including genes related to important characteristics of this organism, such as: gas vesicle proteins, bacteriorhodopsin, translation machinery and transposases. We also found asRNAs in type II toxin-antitoxin systems and using public dRNA-seq data, we show evidences that this phenomenon might be conserved in archaea and bacteria. The interaction of a ncRNA with its target may depend on intermediary proteins action. In archaea, the LSm protein is a RNA chaperone homologous to bacterial Hfq, involved in post-transcriptional regulation. We used RIP-seq data from RNAs immunoprecipitated with LSm and identified 91 asRNAs interacting with this protein, for 81 of these the mRNA of the sense gene is also interacting. We searched for aTSSs present in the same region of orthologous genes in the Haloferax volcanii. We found 160 aTSSs that originated asRNAs in H. salinarum NRC-1 that might be conserved in this two archaea. The expression of annotated asRNAs was analyzed over a growth curve and in a knockout strain for RNase R gene. We found 144 asRNA differentially expressed over the growth curve, for 56 of these the sense gene was also differentially expressed, characterizing possible cis regulators asRNAs. In the knockout strain we found five differentially expressed asRNAs and only one asRNA/gene pair, this result does not allow us to infer a dsRNA degradation in vivo activity for this RNase in H. salinarum NRC- 1. This work contributes to the discovery of the antisense transcriptome in H. salinarum NRC- 1 a relevant step to uncover the post-transcriptional gene regulatory network in this archaeon.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] Aproximadamente 57 millones de adultos sufren insuficiencia cardíaca en todo el mundo y el trasplante cardíaco sigue siendo el tratamiento de referencia, en ausencia de contraindicaciones, en pacientes con insuficiencia cardíaca avanzada. A pesar de las mejoras en el tratamiento inmunosupresor, uno de los principales eventos tras el trasplante es el rechazo agudo (rechazo celular agudo (RCA) y el rechazo mediado por anticuerpos (RMA). La biopsia endomiocárdica (BEM) es la técnica estándar para monitorizar el rechazo, pero presenta importantes limitaciones, como su carácter invasivo. Por lo tanto, la identificación de métodos no invasivos para reducir o eliminar la BEM es un campo de estudio abierto. La biopsia líquida es una alternativa potencial menos invasiva debido a su capacidad para reflejar los cambios fisiopatológicos producidos en los órganos durante un evento. Los enfoques ómicos han permitido el descubrimiento de moléculas libres circulantes en sangre como biomarcadores de enfermedad, destacando el potencial de los ARNs por su papel en procesos inflamatorios, especificidad tisular y estabilidad en fluidos biológicos. Por ello, esta Tesis Doctoral se ha centrado en identificar ARNs libres circulantes alterados en el torrente sanguíneo tras un trasplante de corazón desde un enfoque transcriptómico y estudiar la capacidad diagnóstica para su uso como biomarcadores de rechazo cardíaco (RCA [no rechazo (0R), leve (1R) y moderado-grave (≥2R)] y RMA [no rechazo (pRMA0) y rechazo histopatológico e inmunopatológico (pRMA2)]). Los resultados obtenidos en esta Tesis Doctoral mostraron una desregulación en varios biotipos de ARNs libres circulantes tras el trasplante cardíaco en condiciones de rechazo. Observamos alteraciones en genes relacionados con el sarcómero; y el gen que codifica la alfa-actina cardiaca (ACTC1) mostró la mejor capacidad diagnóstica (≥2R área bajo la curva (AUC)=1,000, p<0,0001). Además, determinamos los niveles de la proteína ACTC1 en una cohorte mayor de pacientes, corroborando los hallazgos previos (AUC=0,702, p<0,05). Además, identificamos varios miARNs alterados en el suero de pacientes con RCA, concretamente miR-144-3p mostró los mejores resultados. En la fase de validación tuvo una capacidad diagnóstica excelente para el rechazo ≥2R (AUC=0,801, p<0,0001); sin embargo, su capacidad para detectar el rechazo 1R fue limitada (AUC=0,631, p<0,01). Así pues, analizamos y validamos la combinación de miR-144-3p y miR-652-3p, otro miARN identificado en la fase de descubrimiento. La combinación mejoró el poder diagnóstico (≥2R AUC=0,892, p<0,0001; 1R AUC=0,794, p<0,0001). Además, analizamos por primera vez la presencia en suero de otros biotipos de ARNs no codificantes tras un trasplante cardíaco. En concreto, identificamos 5 lncARNs (AC008105.3, AC006525.1, AC011455.8, AL359220.1, y AC025279.1) con capacidad diagnóstica excelente para la detección de los grados ≥2R (AUC de 0,850 a 1,000) y 1R (AUC de 0,750 a 0,854). Por otro lado, identificamos 7 piARNs (piR-169894, piR-181318, piR-1981088, piR-2479902, piR-380748, piR-398377 y piR-401292) con un perfil de expresión coincidente en suero y BEM. A continuación, validamos la combinación de estos piARNs en una cohorte mayor independiente (≥2R AUC=0,819, p<0,0001; 1R AUC=0,721, p=0,001). Además, nuestro panel de piARNs mostró un excelente poder diagnóstico de RMA (AUC=0,967, p<0,0001). Nuestros resultados demuestran la existencia de alteraciones en la expresión de ARNs libres circulantes (mARN, miARN, lncARN y piARN) en pacientes con rechazo cardíaco tras un trasplante, demostrando además una potente capacidad diagnóstica para los diferentes grados de RCA, incluso para el grado de rechazo leve. Además, una adecuada combinación de ARNs libres circulantes muestra mayor precisión para el diagnóstico del RCA que la detección individual de cada molécula, mostrando una excelente capacidad de diagnóstico del RMA y permitiendo monitorizar la respuesta al tratamiento. / [CA] Aproximadament 57 milions d'adults patixen insuficiència cardíaca a tot el món i el trasplantament cardíac continua sent el tractament de referència en absència de contraindicacions en pacients amb insuficiència cardíaca avançada. Malgrat les millores en el tractament immunosupressor, un dels principals esdeveniments després del trasplantament és el rebuig agut (rebuig cel·lular agut (RCA) i rebuig mediat per anticossos (RMA)). La biòpsia endomiocàrdica (BEM) és la tècnica estàndard per a monitorar el rebuig agut. No obstant això, la BEM presenta importants limitacions, com el seu caràcter invasiu. Per tant, la identificació de mètodes no invasius per a reduir o eliminar la BEM és un camp d'estudi obert. La biòpsia líquida és una alternativa potencial per a substituir a la BEM a causa de la seua capacitat per a reflectir els canvis fisiopatològics produïts en els òrgans durant un rebuig. Els enfocaments òmics han permés el descobriment de molècules lliures circulants en el torrent sanguini com biomarcadors de malaltia, destacant el potencial dels ARNs pel seu paper en processos inflamatoris, especificitat tissular i estabilitat en fluids biològics. Per això, esta Tesi Doctoral s'ha centrat en identificar ARNs lliures circulants alterats en sang després d'un trasplantament de cor des d'un enfocament transcriptòmic i estudiar la capacitat diagnòstica per al seu ús com biomarcadors de rebuig cardíac (RCA [no rebuig (0R), lleu (1R) i moderat-greu (≥2R)] i RMA [no rebuig (pRMA0) i rebuig histopatològic i immunopatològic (pRMA2)]). Els resultats obtinguts en esta Tesi Doctoral van mostrar desregulació en diversos biotips d'ARN lliures circulants després del trasplantament cardíac en condicions de rebuig. Observem alteracions en gens relacionats amb el sarcòmer; i el gen que codifica l'alfa-actina cardíaca (ACTC1) va mostrar la millor capacitat diagnòstica (≥2R: àrea baix la corba (AUC)=1,000, p<0,0001). A més, determinàrem els nivells de proteïna ACTC1 en una cohort major de pacients, corroborant les troballes prèvies (AUC=0,702, p<0,05). A més, identificàrem alguns miARNs alterats en el sèrum de pacients amb RCA, concretament miR-144-3p va mostrar els millors resultats. En la fase de validació va tindre una capacitat diagnòstica excel·lent per al rebuig ≥2R (AUC=0,801, p<0,0001); no obstant això, la seua capacitat per a detectar el rebuig 1R va ser limitada (AUC=0,631, p<0,01). Així doncs, analitzàrem i validàrem la combinació de miR-144-3p i miR-652-3p, un altre miARN identificat en la fase de descobriment. La combinació va millorar el poder diagnòstic (≥2R AUC=0,892, p<0,0001 i 1R AUC=0,794, p<0,0001). A més, analitzem per primera vegada la presència en sèrum d'altres biotips de ARN no codificant després d'un trasplantament cardíac. En concret, identificàrem 5 lncARNs (AC008105.3, AC006525.1, AC011455.8, AL359220.1, i AC025279.1) amb capacitat diagnòstica excel·lent per a la detecció de graus ≥2R (AUC de 0,850 a 1,000) i 1R (AUC de 0,750 a 0,854). D'altra banda, identificàrem 7 piARNs (piR-169894, piR-181318, piR-1981088, piR-2479902, piR-380748, piR-398377, i piR-401292) amb un perfil d'expressió coincident en sèrum i BEM. A continuació, validàrem la combinació d'estos piARNs en una major cohort independent (≥2R AUC=0,819, p<0,0001 i 1R AUC=0,721, p=0,001). A més, el nostre panell de piARN va mostrar un excel·lent poder diagnòstic de RMA (AUC=0,967, p<0,0001). Els nostres resultats demostren l'existència d'alteracions en l'expressió de ARNs lliures circulants (mARN, miARN, lncARN i piARN) en pacients amb rebuig cardíac després d'un trasplantament, demostrant a més una potent capacitat diagnòstica per als diferents graus de RCA, fins i tot per al grau de rebuig lleu. A més, una adequada combinació de ARNs lliures circulants mostra major precisió per al diagnòstic del RCA que la detecció individual de cada molècula, mostrant també una excel·lent capacitat de diagnòstic del RMA i permetent monitorar la resposta al tractament. / [EN] Approximately 57 million adults globally suffer heart failure and heart transplantation remains the gold standard therapy, in the absence of contraindications, in advanced heart failure patients. Despite improvements in immunosuppressive treatment one of the main events after transplant is acute rejection (acute cellular rejection (ACR) and antibody-mediated rejection (AMR)). Endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) is the standard technique for monitoring acute rejection, but EMB presents important limitations such as its invasive nature. Therefore, the identification of non-invasive methods to reduce or eliminate surveillance EMB is an important and necessary open field of study. Liquid biopsy is a potential alternative to replace EMB due to its less invasive nature and capability to reflect pathophysiological changes produced in organs during an event. The omics approaches have allowed the discovery of free molecules circulating in the bloodstream as biomarkers of disease, highlighting the potential of RNAs for their role in inflammatory processes, tissue specificity and stability in biological fluids. Therefore, this Doctoral Thesis have focused on identifying altered circulating cell-free mRNAs, miRNAs, lncRNAs, and piRNAs in the bloodstream after heart transplantation from a transcriptomic approach and studying the diagnostic capacity for its use as biomarkers of cardiac rejection (ACR [non-rejection (0R), mild (1R) and moderate-severe (≥2R)], and AMR [non-rejection (pAMR0) and histopathologic and immunopathologic rejection (pAMR2)]). The results obtained in this Doctoral Thesis showed deregulation in several biotypes of cell-free RNAs after heart transplantation in rejection conditions. We observed alterations in genes related to the sarcomere; and the gene that encodes cardiac alpha-actin (ACTC1) showed the best diagnostic capacity (grade ≥2R: AUC=1.000, p<0.0001). Furthermore, we determined ACTC1 protein levels in a larger cohort of patients, corroborating previous findings (AUC=0.702, p<0.05). Moreover, we identified several miRNAs altered in the serum of patients with ACR, specifically miR-144-3p showed the best results. In the validation phase it had excellent diagnostic capacity for moderate-severe rejection (AUC=0.801 p<0.0001); however, its ability to detect mild rejection was limited (AUC=0.631, p<0.01). Thus, we analysed and validated the combination of miR-144-3p and miR-652-3p, another miRNA identified in the discovery phase. The combination improved diagnostic power for moderate-severe rejection (AUC=0.892, p<0.0001) and mild (AUC =0.794, p<0.0001) rejection. Furthermore, we analysed for the first time the presence in serum of other biotypes of ncRNA (lncRNA and piRNA) after heart transplantation. Specifically, we identified 5 lncRNAs (AC008105.3, AC006525.1, AC011455.8, AL359220.1, and AC025279.1) with excellent diagnostic capacity for detection of ≥2R (AUC of 0.850 to 1.000) and 1R (AUC of 0.750 to 0.854) grades. On the other hand, we identified 7 piRNAs (piR-169894, piR-181318, piR-1981088, piR-2479902, piR-380748, piR-398377, and piR-401292) with a coincident expression profile in serum and EMB. Next, we validated the combination of these piRNAs in a large independent cohort (grade ≥2R: AUC=0.819, p<0.0001 and grade 1R: AUC=0.721, p=0.001). Additionally, our piRNA panel showed excellent diagnostic power for AMR (pAMR2: AUC=0.967, p<0.0001). Our results demonstrate the existence of alterations in the expression of circulating free RNAs (mRNA, miRNA, lncRNA and piRNA) in patients with cardiac rejection after transplantation, also demonstrating a powerful diagnostic capacity for different grades of ACR, even for the grade of mild rejection. Besides, an appropriate combination of circulating free RNAs shows greater precision for the diagnosis of ACR than the single detection of each molecule, showing excellent AMR capacity diagnosis and allowing monitoring of the response to treatment. / This work was supported by the National Institute of Health “Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias del Instituto de Salud Carlos III” (Projects: PI17/01232, PI20/01469, PI20/00071, CP18/00145 and PMPTA22/00184) co-funded by European Union; Miguel Servet contracts: CP21/00041, CP18/00145 cofunded by European Union, European Social Fund (ESF) “The ESF invests in your future” co-funded by European Union; “Consorcio Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red” [CIBERCV, under Grant CB16/11/00261]; Ministry of Science and Innovation (MCIN, 10.13039/501100011033) and State Investigation Agency (AEI) (Project CNS2022-135769) co-funded by European Union “Next Generation EU” and the European Recovery, Transformation and Resilience Plan (PRTR); Conselleria de educación, universidades y empleo (Project kuuy8uio, contract CIACIF/2022/429). / Pérez Carrillo, L. (2024). Identification of New Circulating Biomarkers for the Characterization and Non-Invasive Diagnosis of Cardiac Rejection [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/214192 / Compendio

Neurotrophins and their receptors are key molecules in the development of thenervous system. Neurotrophin-3 binds preferentially to its high-affinity receptorNTRK3, which exists in two major isoforms in humans, the full-length kinaseactiveform (150 kDa) and a truncated non-catalytic form (50 kDa). The twovariants show different 3'UTR regions, indicating that they might be differentiallyregulated at the post-transcriptional level. In this work we explore howmicroRNAs take part in the regulation of full-length and truncated NTRK3,demonstrating that the two isoforms are targeted by different sets of microRNAs.We analyze the physiological consequences of the overexpression of some of theregulating microRNAs in human neuroblastoma cells. Finally, we providepreliminary evidence for a possible involvement of miR-124 - a microRNA with noputative target site in either NTRK3 isoform - in the control of the alternativespicing of NTRK3 through the downregulation of the splicing repressor PTBP1. / Las neurotrofinas y sus receptores constituyen una familia de factores crucialespara el desarrollo del sistema nervioso. La neurotrofina 3 ejerce su funciónprincipalmente a través de una unión de gran afinidad al receptor NTRK3, del cualse conocen dos isoformas principales, una larga de 150KDa con actividad de tipotirosina kinasa y una truncada de 50KDa sin dicha actividad. Estas dos isoformasno comparten la misma región 3'UTR, lo que sugiere la existencia de unaregulación postranscripcional diferente. En el presente trabajo se ha exploradocomo los microRNAs intervienen en la regulación de NTRK3, demostrando que lasdos isoformas son reguladas por diferentes miRNAs. Se han analizado lasconsecuencias fisiológicas de la sobrexpresión de dichos microRNAs utilizandocélulas de neuroblastoma. Finalmente, se ha estudiado la posible implicación delmicroRNA miR-124 en el control del splicing alternativo de NTRK3 a través de laregulación de represor de splicing PTBP1.