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In 1900 the United States had more medical schools than the rest of the world combined. Many of them were commercial institutions devoted to making profits rather than to educating men to perform competently within the medical profession. The profit incentive precipitated low educational standards and made American medical practice decidedly inferior to medical practice almost anywhere else in the civilized world. By 1900 medical education had become pernicious, threatening the health of the nation and the future of the American medical profession. This thesis discusses the efforts to reform medical education practices.

L’objectif principal de la loi Pinel était de rétablir l’équilibre dans les relations entre bailleurs et locataires. Le législateur, comme le pense Guillaume Buy, a une nouvelle fois considéré que « le preneur était en position de faiblesse vis-à-vis de son bailleur comme le salarié le serait vis-à-vis de son employeur ». J'ai étudié dans mon mémoire de recherche les dispositions de la loi Pinel en considérant, comme le législateur, que celles-ci devaient être rééquilibrées. Mais seulement était-ce bien vrai ? Lorsque le statut des baux commerciaux a été créé, il s’agissait principalement de protéger de petits boutiquiers, tels que des artisans, des boulangers, des tailleurs, etc... A cette époque, ces commerçants n’étaient effectivement pas armés face aux bailleurs. C’est ce que le décret-loi de 1953 exposait, invoquant que les commerçants locataires se trouvaient dans une parfaite « ignorance de leurs droits ». Aujourd’hui, cet objectif d'équilibre par le protectionnisme du locataire est-il toujours pertinent ? La nouvelle réforme du droit des contrats, applicable depuis le 1er octobre 2016, risque d'impacter sensiblement la pratique des baux commerciaux au travers notamment du déséquilibre significatif. Quel sera l'impact dans la pratique ? Cette thèse est donc une réflexion globale sur l'équilibre de ce contrat si particulier. En dégageant les points sensibles et important, il permettra de revenir sur les méthodes de "ré-équilibrage" adoptées par le législateur de 1953 jusqu'à aujourd'hui. / The main objective of the Pinel law was to restore the balance in relationships between landlords and tenants. The legislature, as suggested Guillaume Buy, has again held that "the lessee was in position vis-à-vis its weakness lessor as the employee would be vis-à-vis his employer." I studied in my research paper the provisions of the law Pinel considering, as legislators, that they had to be rebalanced. But only was this true? When the status of commercial leases was created, it was mainly to protect small shopkeepers, such as craftsmen, bakers, tailors, etc ... At that time, these traders were not actually deal with armed donors. This is what the 1953 Legislative Decree exposed, citing that tenants traders were in a perfect 'ignorance of their rights. "Today, is this objective of balance by tenant protection still relevant? The new reform of contract law, applicable since 1 October 2016, is likely to have a significant impact on the practice of commercial leases, in particular through the significant imbalance. What will be the impact in practice? This thesis is therefore a global reflection on the balance of this particular contract. In disentangling the sensitive and important points, it will return to the methods of "re-balancing" adopted by the legislator from 1953 until today.

Thesis advisor: Mark Massa / Thesis advisor: John Baldovin / Thesis (STL) — Boston College, 2013. / Submitted to: Boston College. School of Theology and Ministry. / Discipline: Sacred Theology.

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Although numerous efforts have been made to enact the concept of sustainability in schools around the world, a single, replicable model of sustainability education fails to exist. Without a replicable model to follow or adapt, educators looking to enact the concept of sustainability are left to their own devices for deciding what this orientation towards schooling might look like within the contexts of their communities and with respect tot eh normative agenda of schooling in their country. Such a process is challenging. It calls for--among other things--an examination of the core attitudes, beliefs, skills and behaviors that individuals are expected to possess as members of a sustainable society. This descriptive case study documents how the founding members of a secondary charter school worked together with students, parents and members of the local and regional community to create a school-wide model of sustainability education. It also documents the complexities involved with enacting sustainability in a charter school setting. Field observations, document analysis and participant interviews were the primary sources of data collected in this ten-month case study. Michael Fullan's (2007) Change Process Model and Elliot Eisner's (1992) conceptualization of schools as dynamic ecologies were used as theoretical frameworks for study design, data collection and analysis. Findings reveal how the founding members of this charter schools took an adaptive-emergent approach to designing sustainability education. Findings also reveal how the opening of this charter schools was met with resistance and how this resistance led the founders to make theoretical and structural compromises.

It is arguable that at all times the long-term prosperity of a nation is inextricably linked to its educational system, especially of higher education. This study of Vietnam's educational structure and system is both unique and necessary. It provides detailed information and considerable analysis not previously available to readers outside Vietnam. As a historical study, it covers aspects of more than 2,000 years of the country's educational developments, from the invasion of China in 111 B.C. to the present. The study is divided into six chapters, each of which deals with a major period of time. Each chapter is self-contained. Historical background and essential materials are presented and analysed. The writing of historical events is based on chronological order. Vietnam was a country without written language before the coming of the Chinese who, in their invasion of Vietnam in 111 B.C., brought with them their civilization, culture, educational system and language. The introduction of Chinese language to Vietnam can be taken as the overture of Vietnamese education. The first two chapters provide detailed information and historical factors as to how an early educational system of Vietnam was established under the influence of China and through its impact of education on the formation of a Confucian political system and Confucian society, which continued to exist for over 2,000 years. The political decline of China in the late 19th century provided the opportunity for the French to enter Vietnam and finally replace the Chinese sovereignty over the country in 1885. The invasion and ruling of the French (1886-1954) brought forward significant changes in Vietnam politically, socially and educationally. / The French introduced a new, modem educational system to Vietnam and set up an elite colonial educational system which had a great impact on Vietnamese society as well as its education. Traditional Chinese education and its imperial examination system commenced to fade out in Vietnam from the early 20th century and came to an end in 1917. During this colonial period, Western ways of thinking and culture began to flow into Vietnam and continued thenceforth. With the division of the country into North and South as separate regimes under the Geneva Accords in 1954, the educational systems of each regime developed under different political systems and different ideologies from 1955-1975. In the North, the educational system was totally reformed according to Communist doctrine while in the South, education continued to develop in the Western ways. The world-known Vietnam War ended in April 1975. However, the unification of the North and South failed to be effected in many aspects due to varied ideologies and political systems. During the period of 1975-85 Vietnam underwent a transitional reform of education in the South, which continued up to the practice of the nation's `open-door policy' starting from 1987. Narration of a significant profile of attributes of Vietnam's system of education today is fully sketched. The concluding chapter comprises two major parts; the summing up and a general review on Vietnam's educational system and practices, together with some of the issues evident in the system at present.

This dissertation consists of four studies on the role of institutions, education and institutional reform in economic development. Three of the studies examine empirical aspects of the issue and the fourth provides an analysis of policy implications. A key theme of the dissertation is the recognition that institutions, both formal and informal, are important for development. The observation that some developing economies have been unable to substantively improve institutional structures, creates a vital agenda for studying institutional change. The first study empirically investigates the impact of education, both quantitatively and qualitatively, on the informal institution of social capital measured as social trust. Differences in levels of education are considered to find the separate effects of primary, secondary and tertiary education. The relationship between education and social trust levels in countries is found to be positive. The sample is further split into developed and developing countries which also substantiates the main hypothesis. The results can be interpreted as schooling playing a transformative role in the society. The second study develops a framework for studying education inequality and institutional development. A range of economic, political and social measures of institutional quality are used in a cross-country analysis. The study confirms that the cross-country differences in institutional variables are influenced negatively by the education inequality. Several competing hypotheses of institutional improvement are used to test the sensitivity of the results. The sample is further split into OECD and non-OECD countries, with no new results arising from this split. The third study investigates the relationship of education inequality and institutional quality using panel data techniques and an alternative data set of institutional measures, than the one used in the second study. This study initially estimates the relationship using the pooled OLS and fixed effects models. The issue of persistency in institutional variables is then investigated by using a system GMM estimator. The evidence suggests that the impact of reducing education inequality is associated with improvements in institutional quality. The fourth study analyses the implications from the first three studies with reference to the institutional reform agenda. Insight is given for improving the reform process. Areas of context specificity and sequencing of reforms are dealt with, using country examples. The intuition from this essay is that educational equality is a deliberate initiative which needs to be carried out through policy initiatives, although the process adopted would depend on the specific economy. It is suggested that there is a need to change the fundamental focus from emphasis on altering formal rules, to considering the current underlying structures in societies as a constraint, in developing a way forward to improving the reform agenda.

The dissertation investigates support by economists for the global policy shift away from unfunded public pension schemes towards funded private pension schemes. Influential economists and institutions, including the World Bank, present a suite of economic arguments that suggest that this shift will have positive effects on national economies, particularly in the context of aging. The arguments may be categorised according to their relation to the operation of three sets of institutions: capital markets, labour markets and political systems. In capital markets, the transition is purported to increase private and national saving, increase the quantity and quality of investment, and provide more efficient private administration. In labour markets, it is claimed that the shift will reduce labour market distortions associated with public pensions, which inhibit competitiveness, produce unemployment and encourage early retirement. According to the World Bank, public pensions systems cause these distortions without achieving their stated objective of reducing inequality. In the political sphere, the shift is purported to insulate the pension system from political pressures, which otherwise inevitably lead to crisis. The thesis provides evidence which refutes these claims. The best research, including studies by orthodox economists, indicate that the shift does not increase savings or investment, or improve the quality of financial investment. The main effect of tax concessions associated with private pension systems is to divert to private pension funds savings that would occur in any case via other mechanisms. The tax concessions are also regressive, even in systems with compulsory elements. Private administration of pensions, particularly in a plural consumer market setting, is highly inefficient, with customers at a disadvantage in dealing with providers due to the complexity and opacity of products and pricing. A negative relationship is found between public pension spending and levels of elderly poverty, suggesting that reducing public pension spending increases levels of elderly inequality. Public pensions are found not to explain differences in economic growth between regions. Elements of system design which distort labour markets, such as by encouraging early retirement, can easily be adjusted. However, such elements are explicit government policy in several countries. A review of public and private pensions finds that examples of public system crisis are associated with instances of economic and political collapse, rather than system design. Private funded systems are found to be more vulnerable, not less, to the same external influences. Relatively generous universal public pension systems are found to be financially sustainable despite demographic change, assuming modest levels of economic growth.