Though relatively young, the field of organic electronics is a rapidly growing market and considerable research is being done in creating a whole range of devices from organic molecules from organic field effect transistors to LEDs to photovoltaic devices. The field of organic photovoltaic in particular has become important in recent years with the push for newer, renewable sources of energy to end the dependence on fossil fuels. While the efficiencies of organic photovoltaic devices continue to rise, one barrier to their commercial adoption has been the limited lifetimes of these devices. While certain degradation methods of organic photovoltaics, such as photo-oxidation, have been extensively studied and solutions to these problems, such as encapsulation, are being researched, certain other degradation mechanisms are less understood and studied. The focus of this thesis is on one such degradation mechanism, UV degradation, specific to the ITO-pentacene interface in pentacene/C60 organic photovoltaic devices. Attempts were made to increase the lifetime of the devices by using phosphonic acids or oxygen plasma to modify the surface of the ITO. While conducting these experiments, the lack of a system to test the lifetime of multiple devices for long periods of time became apparent. As such as system was a requirement for future research into the lifetimes of organic photovoltaic devices a system was designed and built. The system would operate the photovoltaic device in a way comparable to its end-use and would allow over 100 devices to be tested simultaneously for durations exceeding 10,000 hours if necessary. This system would allow for statistically significant lifetime testing to be carried out in the future.

The design of chromophores targets materials with optoelectronic properties necessary for advanced applications. Organic materials possess properties which emerge from the collective impact of the constituent backbone and substituents as well as their connectivity (i.e. molecular architecture), necessitating the exploration of novel conjugated architectures. This thesis chronicles our examination of 1,4-distyryl-2,5-bis(arylethynyl)benzenes (cruciforms, XFs). Electronic substitution of this 'X-shaped' cross-conjugated scaffold tunes both the energy levels and the spatial distribution of the frontier molecular orbitals (FMOs) in XFs. The resulting fluorophores exhibit FMO separation, imbuing XFs with desirable properties for sensory applications. Using model analytes, we examine how the underlying FMO arrangement and the nature of analyte interaction elicit observable responses. These studies provide a foundation for future access of functional responsive ratiometric cores. This case study demonstrates the importance and unique potential of FMO-separated fluorophores.

The work presented in this thesis is primarily concerned with the synthesis and characterization of large, linear heteroacenes and their derivatives. We have been able to significantly expand on the types of materials available for application in organic electronic device architectures. In particular, the work focused on solution processible and novel derivatives of thiadiazoles, diazatetracenes, diazapentacenes, tetrazapentacences, and N,N-dihydrotetraazaheptacene. Extensive computational studies have been performed in order to better understand the optoelectronic properties of these materials. Although no devices have been fabricated that show appreciable hole or electron mobility, the properties of these materials are very promising. Besides our work on organic electronic materials for application in optoelectronic devices, we have also been able to develop, via the Click reaction, a series of aqueous metal sensors for copper (II), nickel (II), and silver (I) based upon fluorescence quenching. The use of a modified Stern-Volmer equation was necessary to fit the data in order to obtain binding constants. The exploration of new materials and their properties in the area of organic electronics is an exciting field for the synthetic organic chemist, as the goals associated with this work strive to impact humanity in a positive manner by reducing energy costs.

Conjugated polymers represent the next generation of conducting materials that will enable technological devices incorporating thin film transistors, photovoltaic cells etc., in a cost-effective roll-to-roll manner. Given the importance of microstructure on charge transport, ordered self-assembly in polymeric semiconductors assumes paramount relevance. This thesis thus focuses on a fundamental investigation of the correlations between the morphology and microstructure of the first high mobility solution processable semiconducting polymer, poly(3-hexylthiophene)(P3HT), and its corresponding charge transport properties. The evolution of polymer chain conformations is first studied, leading up to the formation of the conducting channel. An intermediate lyotropic liquid crystalline phase is identified, characterized by anisotropic ordering of the polymer chains. Methods for tuning the microstructure of P3HT thin films are also discussed, with an emphasis on understanding the role of molecular parameters, such as regioregularity and process parameters such as the film formation method. An ultrasound based technique for inducing the formation of ordered π-stacked molecular aggregates is also introduced. The results presented here not only provide understanding of microstructure-charge transport correlations, but also the very process of film formation in solution processable organic semiconductors, which could in turn hold the key to approaching the mobility benchmark represented by single crystals.

The interface of a zinc-terminated polar zinc oxide surface (0002) with a series of chemisorbed fluorinated benzylphosphonic acids has been studied using density functional theory. The calculations indicate that there is a substantial change in the binding energies and work function modification depending on the binding motif. The results also indicate that there is a pronounced difference in the magnitude and trends of the factors determining the total change in work function. The oxygen core-level binding shifts have been calculated and compared to available experimental data.

<p>Despite tremendous achievements, the field of conjugated polymers is still in its infancy, mimicking the more mature inorganic, i.e. silicon-based, technologies. We may though look forward to the realisation of electronic and electrochemical devices with exotic designs and device applications, as our knowledge about the fundamentals of these promising materials grow ever stronger. </p><p>My own contribution to this development, originating from an idea first put forward by my tutor, Professor Magnus Berggren, is a design for a switchable polymer-based diode. Its architecture is based on a modified version of a recently developed highly-rectifying diode,12 where an intermediate molecular layer has been incorporated in the bottom contact. Due to its unique ability to switch its internal resistance during operation, this thin layer can be used to shift the amount of (forward) current induced into the rectifying structure of the device, and by doing so shift its electrical characteristics between an insulating and a rectifying behaviour (as illustrated below). Such a component should be of great commercial interest in display technologies since it would, at least hypothetically, be able to replace the transistors presently used to address the individual matrix elements. </p><p>However, although fairly simple in theory, it proved to be quite the challenge to fabricate the device structure. Machinery errors and contact problems aside, several process routes needed to be evaluated and only a small fraction of the batches were successful. In fact, it was not until the very last day that I detected the first indications that the concept might actually work. Hence, several modifications might still be necessary to undertake in order to get the device to work properly.</p>

Conjugated polymers hold tremendous potential as low-cost, solution processable materials for electronic applications such organic light-emitting diodes and photovoltaics. While the concerted efforts of many research groups have improved the performance of organic electronic devices to near-relevant levels for commercial exploitation over the last decade, the overall performance of organic light-emitting diode and organic photovoltaic devices still lags behind that of their traditional, inorganic counterparts. Realizing the full potential of organic electronics will require a comprehensive, molecular-level understanding of conjugated polymer photophysics. Studying pure, well-defined, and reproducible conjugated polymer materials should enable these efforts; unfortunately, conjugated polymers are typically synthesized by metal-catalyzed step-growth polycondensation reactions that do not allow for rigorous control over polymer molecular weight or molecular weight distribution (i.e., dispersity). Chain-growth syntheses of conjugated polymers would not only allow for precise control over the aforementioned polymer metrics such as molecular weight and dispersity, but could also potentially create new applications by enabling the preparation of more advanced macromolecular structures such as block copolymers and surface grafted polymers. Our efforts toward realizing these goals as well as toward exploiting chain-growth methodologies to better understand fundamental conjugated polymer photophysics and self-assembly will be presented. / text

Donor-acceptor and thiophene based π-conjugated molecules and polymers, along with fullerene derivatives, are extensively used active components in the photoactive layer of organic photovoltaic devices. In this dissertation, we make use of several computational methodologies to investigate structure-property relationships of these organic systems in their molecular forms. We begin with an overview of the field of organic photovoltaics and some of the important problems in organic solar cells that are currently being investigated. This is then followed by a brief review of the electronic-structure methods (e.g. Hartree-Fock theory, Density Functional Theory, and Time-dependent Density Functional Theory) that are employed. We then present the main results of the dissertation. Chapter 3 provides a broad overview on how changes to the donor-acceptor copolymer chemical structure impacts its intrinsic geometric, electronic, and optical properties. Chapter 4 focuses on the characterization of the lowest excited-states and optical absorption spectra in donor-acceptor copolymers. In Chapter 5, we investigate the effects of alkyl side-chain placements in the π-conjugated backbone of oligothiophenes and how that impacts their intramolecular properties as well as the oligomer:fullerene interfacial interactions. Chapter 6 presents our investigation on the role of oligomer:fullerene configuration and reorganization energy on exciton-dissociation and charge-recombination processes. Finally, a synopsis of the work and further considerations are presented in Chapter 7.

Since their discovery, organic electronic materials have been of great interest as an alternative active layer material for active area materials in electronic applications. Initially studied as probes or lasing material the field has progressed to the point where both conjugated polymers and small organics have become fashionable objects of current device oriented solid state research. Organic electronic materials are liquid crystalline materials, packing into well-ordered domains when annealed thermally or via solvent annealing. The macromolecular orientation of the molecules in the solid state causes a shift in the electronic properties due to coupling of the dipoles. The amount of interaction between molecules can be correlated to different nanoscale morphologies. Such morphologies can be measured using microscopy techniques and compared to the spectroscopic results. This can then be extrapolated out to infer how the charges move within a film. Cyanine dyes represent an interesting form class of dyes as the molecular packing is strongly affected by hydrophilic and hydrophobic pendent groups, which cause the dye to arrange into a tubular bilayer. Spectroelectrochemistry is used to monitor and controllably oxidize the samples. Using singular value decomposition (SVD) it is possible to extract each electronic species formed during electrochemical oxidation and model the proposed species using semi empirical quantum mechanical calculations. Polyfluorene is a blue luminescent polymer of interest for its high quantum yield. The solution and solid-state conformation has shown two distinct phases. The formation of the secondary phase shows a dependence on the molecular weight. In a poor solvent, as the molecular weight increases, the secondary phase forms easier. In the solid state, the highly efficient blue emission from polyfluorene is degraded by ketone defects. The energy transfer to preexisting ketone defects is increased as the filmed is thermally ordered. Glass transitions of block copolymers are studied using synthetically novel polymers where an environmentally sensitive fluorescent reporter is placed within various regions of a self-assembled film. Different dynamics are observed within the block of the film then specifically at the interface of two blocks. / text

Organic and inorganic/organic hybrid material development is essential for the advancement of electronic devices, such as organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs), organic thin film transistors (OTFTs) and fuel cells. These materials are superior to their inorganic counterparts due to the ability to create flexible devices that can be produced on a large scale and at relatively low cost. First, electron-transport materials (n-type semiconductors) are severely lacking for the development of sufficient OTFTs. Metal-interrupted perylene analogues have been developed, in part, to take advantage of the ability to tune the electronic properties of these complexes by simply changing the metal center. Second, fluorescent molecules play an essential role in expansion of microscale sensor systems and OLEDs. Solvent dependent triple fluorescence has been discovered for a series of isobutylnaphthalimide derivatives, which is unique for naphthalimide materials which typically demonstrate dual fluorescence. Next, oxygen reduction electrocatalysts in fuel cells have hindered commercialization due to the high price of platinum. Here, polymer-containing palladium nanoparticles utilize the metal center embedded directly in the polymer backbone to serve as a seed point for metal nanoparticle growth. The palladium nanoparticles within the polymer matrix display significant catalytic activity towards oxygen reduction. Also, poly-9,9-dioctylfluorene is at the forefront of blue-light emitting materials for OLEDs due to high quantum efficiencies and good thermal stability; however, a low-energy green band emission contaminant in devices has hindered application. Oligofluorene synthesis to understand this phenomenon can be difficult thus a boronic acid protection has been implemented before Suzuki-Miyaura coupling occurs to reduce the number of byproducts produced and to accomplish synthesis of oligofluorenes such as a pentamer and heptamer. Lastly, while deviating from organic and inorganic/organic electronic materials, a discussion on the development of a mononuclear Rh(II) complexes, specifically a piano-stool conformation which assists in isolation of this species. The piano-stool ligand structure consists of alkyl chains for easy conformational adjustments when the Rh(I) metal center undergoes oxidation, bulky phosphine groups and an electron-donating arene ring to keep the Rh(II) metal center from dimerization. Most importantly, the research conducted has strived toward advancements over a broad range of scientific investigation. / text