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In his landmark work World Poverty and Human Rights, Thomas Pogge offers a novel approach to understanding the nature and extent of the obligations that citizens of wealthy states owe to their less fortunate counterparts in poor states. Pogge argues that the wealthy have weighty obligations to aid the global poor because the wealthy coercively impose institutions on the poor that leave their human rights, particularly their subsistence rights avoidably unfulfilled. Thus, Pogge claims that the wealthy states' obligations to the poor are ultimately generated by their negative duties, that is, their duties to refrain from harming. In this essay, I argue that Pogge cannot successfully appeal to negative duties in way that would appease his critics because his notion of a negative duty is seriously indeterminate, so much so as to compromise his ability to plausibly appeal to it.

Contents of Thesis and Abstract: In a highly democratic nation, a majority of the national affairs are determined by the opinions of civilians. All public departments work their utmost to pursue ¡§public satisfaction.¡¨ As one of the control bodies of the society, the police organization not only performs intervening and banning acts, but also has to pay attention to the quality of its service to the public. Between the roles the police should play, there exists an extremely great conflict. Undoubtedly, there creates additional burden to the work of the police, which was originally under high working pressure and high degree of tiredness. According to Clause 2 of the Police Act of Taiwan, ¡§The duties of the police are to maintain public order, protect social safety, prevent all the dangers and harms, and facilitate the welfare of people according to laws.¡¨ However, in practice, the complicatedness of duties of the police in Taiwan and the multiplicity of businesses the police involves can be considered of the highest level in the world. The district on-duty police officers, who always stand on the frontline and have frequent contacts with citizens, are just the most basic-level police officers implementing different kinds of administrative work of the police. In view of this, this paper finds out the factors affecting the working pressure and job satisfaction of district on-duty police officers as well as their extents, hoping to understand whether they have strong preference for the change of duties in turn. It is hoped that the study can help improve the quality of both the district on-duty police officers and the administrative work of the police. The study took 1,202 district on-duty police officers subordinating to the Police Bureau of Kaohsiung City Government as the research targets, and employed the way of questionnaire survey to carry out the research. There were 430 questionnaires sent out, and 405 valid questionnaires were returned. After using the statistical software, SPSS to undergo descriptive analysis, t-test, one-way ANOVA, related and regressive statistical analysis, the study acquires the following results: 1. Part of the facets of working pressure, job satisfaction and the preference for the change of duties in turn has significant difference if there is a difference in the statistical variables of part of the attributes of individuals. 2. Working pressure has significant negative relativity and significant negative effects on job satisfaction. 3. Job satisfaction has significant negative relativity to the preference for the change of duties in turn. The facet of ¡§internal satisfaction¡¨ has significant negative effects on the facet of ¡§preference for the change of duties in turn,¡¨ but has significant positive effects on the facet of ¡§perception for the change of duties in turn.¡¨ The facet of ¡§external satisfaction¡¨ has significant positive effects on the facet of ¡§perception for the change of duties in turn.¡¨ 4. Working pressure has significant positive relativity to the preference for the change of duties in turn. The ¡§personal factor of pressure¡¨ has significant positive effects on the preference for the change of duties in turn. ¡§External environmental pressure¡¨ has significant positive effects on the facet of ¡§preference for the change of duties in turn.¡¨ 5. When both working pressure and job satisfaction at the same time perform regressive statistics on the preference for the change of duties in turn, the results show that job satisfaction really has mediating effect. Keywords: district on-duty police officers, working pressure, job satisfaction, preference for the change of duties in turn

This thesis is the first step in a research project which aims to develop an accurate and robust theory of global justice. The thesis concerns the content of our duties of global justice, under strict compliance theory. It begins by discussing the basic framework of my theory of global justice, which consists in two aspects: duties of minimal wellbeing, which are universal, and duties of fairness and equality, which are associative and not universal. With that in place, it briefly discusses the nature of duties of fairness and equality. I shall argue that they are associative, because they are derived from the form of cooperation at hand; and that there are three kinds of them in our contemporary world: states, local cooperation and trans-state cooperation. It is from their forms of cooperation that these duties are derived. After that, the thesis focuses exclusively on duties of minimal wellbeing. Against the usual account of these duties - the human-flourishing account - I argue for my human-life account. This account argues that the function of these duties is to secure a human life for individuals; and it begins with a Razian conception of wellbeing, which states that the wellbeing of an individual is fundamentally constituted by: (a) the satisfaction of his biological needs, and (b) his success in whole-heartedly pursuing socially defined and determined goals and activities which are in fact valuable. An account of what constitutes a human life is then derived from this conception of wellbeing – it is a life that consists in having a level of wellbeing that is higher than the satisfaction of biological needs, where this is constituted by the pursuit of goals and activities with a sense of what is worth doing; and this in turn consists in: (a) being able to forms ideas of what is worth doing, (b) being able to revise them in light of further reasons, and (c) being able to coordinate one's actions according to them. I then determine the specific objects of duties of minimal wellbeing (means for the satisfaction of biological needs, education, physical security, freedom of belief, association and expression, freedom of non-harmful conduct, and minimal resources), by determining what is involved in securing such a human life for individuals.

A just society must provide a range of goods: police protection, education, medical care, legal representation, to name only a few. But how should a just society organize production of these goods? To ask this question is to broach the topic of productive justice. We need a theory of this topic in order to explain the content of the ideal of social justice. A certain theory of productive justice is now widely taken for granted. It has the following commitments. Every able beneficiary of just institutions owes some productive contribution. There is no free-loading on just institutions. Therefore, income support from the state should normally be conditioned on working. Those who would be idle must find a way to support themselves. Beyond this general requirement, however, each citizen gets to decide his own contribution, because each citizen has a right to choose his occupation. The state may not assign occupations or specify anyone’s place of work. Nor may it direct anyone to work longer than he prefers, provided he is not loafing on public support. Instead, labor must be allocated through a market, where everyone is free to decline any given job offer. The labor market thus fixes the possibilities of just production: the socioeconomic goals that a society may justly accomplish are limited to those that can be pursued in or alongside a labor market. This theory is now widely accepted. I argue that its central elements are importantly mistaken. Income support from the state should not normally be conditioned on working. To think this is to misunderstand the nature of each citizen’s contributory duty. Nor is it the case that a just state may never assign urgent jobs or otherwise restrict occupational decisions. To think this is to misunderstand several of the basic rights and liberties of citizenship. In my dissertation, I defend a different theory, with three elements. The first is a theory of every citizen’s right to free choice of occupation. The second is a theory of the scope and basis of the economic duties of modern citizenship. The third is a theory of the permissibility conditions of restricting labor market liberties. Together these three elements comprise a new theory of productive justice. / Government

Šiame darbe buvo analizuojami tam tikri netiesioginių mokesčių Europos Sąjungoje reglamentavimo aspektai – tiek pirmoje, tiek antroje darbo dalyje analizė buvo pradedama apžvelgiant kaip kito požiūris į tam tikrus reglamentavimo aspektus, kokių priemonių buvo imtasi, kitais žodžiais tariant, atrodė svarbu apžvelgti, kaip istoriškai kito požiūris į netiesioginių mokesčių reglamentavimą, be abejo, nepaliekant nuošalyje vieno iš svarbesnių aspektų – atsižvelgiant į bendruosius Bendrijos tikslus, peržvelgti, kaip buvo įgyvendintas (ar turėjo būti) siekis harmonizuoti reglamentavimą netiesioginių mokesčių srityje. Po harmonizavimo politikos istorinės apžvalgos buvo pereita prie konkrečių, šiuo metu galiojančių tiek pridėtinės vertės mokesčio, tiek akcizo reglamentavimo aspektų. Kaip vienu iš vertingų šaltinių buvo pasirinkta Europos Teisingumo Teismo praktika, kuri buvo vertinga iš esmės dėl dviejų pagrindinių priežasčių – remiantis Teismo praktika buvo galima išskirti tas sritis, kurių dabartinis reguliavimas vis dar išlieka problematiškas, be to, tose srityse, kur vis dar susiduriama su reglamentavimo neaiškumu ar dviprasmiškumu, pavyzdžiui, aiškinant tam tikras sąvokas, Teismo praktika buvo vertingas šaltinis stengiantis iššiaiškinti kokrečių normų prasmę. Galiausiai darbo išvadose buvo glaustai pateikti pagrindiniai probleminiai aspektai, kurie išryškėjo analizuojant tiek teisės aktus, tiek teismų praktiką bei užsienio teisės mokslininkų darbus – tokie kaip vis dar taikomi... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The subject of this master thesis was the analysis of certain aspects, regarding indirect taxes regulation in the European Union. The first and the second part of this paper cover the changes in the attitude to certain regulations aspects, what sort of measures have been taken, in other words, it seemed important to show the historical development of this attitude, nevertheless pay consideration to the harmonization policy in the field of indirect taxation, the way it had been introduced and implemented (or should be) with regard to the Community’s aims. After the introduction, regarding harmonization policy, both parts deal with certain aspects of the regulation of value added tax and excises. The practice of European Court of Justice has been beneficial mainly because firstly, it helped to disclose those areas, in which the regulation remains problematic and secondly, where regulation is still deemed as inexplicit – it has stood as a valuable source trying to clarify the real meaning of certain regulation aspects. Finally, conclusions have been made with regard to the analysis of laws and practice of the European Court of Justice. These are zero rates, applicable to the Value Added Tax, which do not comply with the common system of the value added tax, excise rates, which Member States are free to determine according to the fixed minimum rates and in this way to distort the common market.

Šiuolaikinėse teisinėse sistemose įtvirtintų įmonės vadovo fiduciarinių pareigų instituto tikslas - apsaugoti įmonės (akcininkų) interesus nuo įmonės vadovo veiksmų. Vadovaudamasis fiduciarinėmis pareigomis, įmonės vadovas privalo veikti išimtinai įmonės interesams. Šio darbo problema yra ta, kad įmonės vadovas veikdamas išimtinai įmonės (akcininkų) interesams įmonės nemokumo laikotarpiu, pažeistų įmonės kreditorių teises bei interesus. Šiam darbui keliami šie uždaviniai : (1) išsiaiškinti privataus juridinio asmens vaidmenį teisinėje sistemoje; (2) pateikti įmonės vadovo fiduciarinių pareigų sampratą ir reglamentavimą tarptautiniame kontekste; (3) atskleisti įmonės nemokumo atsiradimo momentą bei teisines pasekmes; (4) išsiaiškinti, kokį poveikį daro įmonės nemokumas privataus juridinio asmens vadovo fiduciarinėms pareigoms. Šio darbo tikslas – išsiaiškinti įmonės vadovo fiduciarines pareigas bei atsakyti į klausimą, ar keičiasi įmonės vadovo fiduciarinės pareigos įmonei esant nemokiai. Šio darbo objektas – privataus juridinio asmens fiduciarinės pareigos. Įgyvendinant darbo tikslą, daugiausia dėmesio buvo skiriama įmonės vadovo fiduciarinių pareigų ir įmonės nemokumo sąvokų sampratoms bei įmonės vadovo fiduciarinių pareigų pasikeitimo nustatymui ryšium su įmonės nemokumu. Šis iškeltas tikslas darbe sėkmingai įgyvendintas – vadovaujantis Lietuvos bei tarptautine teismų praktika, įstatymais bei moksline literatūra. Vadovaujantis JAV (išskyrus Šiaurės Karolinos valstiją) ir... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The title of this work is: do the fiduciary duties of director of the company change during the period of insolvency? The problem of this work is that lots of directors of companies uses creditors funds and deepens the company insolvency. It’s because they have a fiduciary duty to act in the best interests of their company, so they are trying to get back their company to solvency. The actuality. The main purpose of every company is to get the bigger profit in what their work. Often, profit enforces the director of the company to take untenable, risky business decisions independently of other subjects’ interests. In modern law countries, the fiduciary duties of director of the company are the main protector for other subjects (most often shareholders) from useless, conflicting business decisions. According to the statistics department of Lithuania and data of Lithuanian courts, there were 957 company bankruptcy cases in 2008 and 1409 company bankruptcy case in 2009. Constantly rising numbers of bankruptcy procedures in Lithuania show that more and more companies faces the insolvency financial stage during the economical crisis in the world, so proper regulation of directors fiduciary duties become more and more important question in every countries legal system. Insolvency of the company establishes specific relationships between company and the creditors of the company. In the financial period of insolvency, company starts to use creditors’ resources, to get back to the... [to full text]

Subsidijos yra vienas iš sudėtingiausių ir daugiausia ginčų sukeliančių tarptautinės teisės klausimų. Viena vertus, vyriausybės teikia subsidijas siekdamos visiškai teisėtų nacionalinės ekonominės ir socialinės politikos tikslų. Tačiau, kita vertus, subsidijos gali sukelti nenumatytus tarptautinės prekybos iškraipymus. Dėl jų neigiamo poveikio subsidijos yra sudėtingo tarptautinės ir viršvalstybinės teisės normų rinkinio, kuriuo siekiama atskirti ir reguliuoti „nesąžiningas“ subsidijas, subjektas. Šiame magistro darbe nagrinėjama apsaugos nuo neigiamo subsidijų poveikio prekybos partnerių interesams problematika, ieškant atsakymų į klausimus, kodėl apsauga yra būtent tokia, ir ar subsidijų (ir joms atsverti taikomų kompensacinių muitų) naudojimą reglamentuojančios taisyklės yra pakankamos. / Subsidies are one of the most complicated and contentious questions in international law. On the one hand, subsidies are used by governments to serve fully legitimate objectives of national economic and social policy. On the other hand, however, subsidies may create unintended distortions in international trade. Due to adverse effects subsidies are the subject to an intricate set of legal rules of international and supra-national law, which attempts to distinguish and regulate „unfair“ subsidies. This master‘s thesis examines the issue of protection from adverse effects on the interests of trading partners, attempting to answer the questions, why this is the case and whether the disciplines governing the use of subsidies – and countervailing duties to offset them – is complete.

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This thesis examines the legal duties of directors of UK public companies in the light of the 'stakeholder' approach to the firm. It considers the theory that directors are not simply agents of shareholders, but have a duty to take into consideration and, where appropriate, to balance the interests of several constituencies. Examples of suggested stakeholders include employees, customers, suppliers and creditors, as well as the local community and the natural environment. If this broad view of public company responsibility is warranted, the role of the law in securing a 'stakeholder' style of management needs to be examined, and this study attempts that task. To this end, empirical research was conducted via interviews with public company directors and secretaries from a range of public companies of different sizes operating in many business sectors to investigate: • the extent to which at present they view their role as requiring assessment and inclusion of the interests of stakeholders • the manner in which such assessment and inclusion is actually carried out • the impact which a statutory formulation of duties to incorporate stakeholder interests would or might have on decisionmaking in practice • the effect of board structure on corporate decisionmaking. The effect of 'stakeholder orientation' of company directors on the economic performance and social impact of UK public companies was considered. The DTI's Company Law Review Steering Group has referred to the distinction between 'Enlightened Shareholder Value' and the 'Pluralist' approach. This thesis further reviews those arguments and seeks to set them in their commercial context. It is highly probable that there will be a new UK Companies Act following the next General Election. This thesis suggests a new statutory statement of directors' duties and considers the impact which such statutory wording might have. If directors' legal duties were to be reformulated, that change would needs to buttressed by a mechanism to protect stakeholder expectations, in court as a last resort. This thesis argues that the most promising form for such stakeholder remedies is that of the current 'unfair prejudice' action. If the UK is to avoid being left behind internationally in its system of corporate regulation, it needs to take its European Union obligations and the laws of other Member States into account. It is argued that the UK can find much to learn from the continental European traditions. The conclusion of the thesis focuses on the Company Law Review and its potential economic impact. It is argued that UK company law should address the rights of all stakeholders if it is to be ‘modern’ and ‘competitive’.