The theoretical frameworks of transaction cost economics and agency theory are widely used to design appropriate governance structure for constraining opportunism within marketing channels. These approaches generally assume that marketing channel managers are opportunistic, and only economic constraints deter opportunism in exchange relationships. However, some empirical studies have shown that managers do not always behave opportunistically even if conditions permit such behavior. In addition, some researchers have proposed a "cycle of self-fulfilling prophecy" and have argued that the uncritical assumption of opportunism and excessive use of control mechanisms such as monitoring only exacerbates the problem. Thus, it is important to identify conditions in which opportunism likely occurs. The present research argues that marketing channel managers exhibit differing propensities for opportunism (PFO), and it spans three levels of analysis to identify contributing factors. The individual-level analysis treats marketing channel managers as a heterogeneous population and investigates the impact of individual traits on their behaviors in business relationships. At the dyadic level, I modify standard microeconomics models to incorporate norms of fairness. Finally, the extra-dyadic level of analysis goes beyond the traditional dyadic focus to include network-wide social influence on a relationship. Using the data collected from 162 unit franchieees. the hypotheses were tested using structural path analyses. The findings of this dissertation provide guidance on the extent to which costly and potentially damaging control mechanisms are really necessary in a given marketing channel relationship. Overall, the research contributes to the existing literature by re-examining a fundamental behavioral assumption about marketing channel managers and providing an alternative framework that can meaningfully inform us as to when and why opportunism occurs. / Ph. D.

No description available.

Penningtvätt och finansiering av terrorism är ett internationellt problem som ständigt hotar världsekonomin och det finansiella systemet. Detta har medfört att Financial Action Task Forces grundläggande rekommendationer, som legat till bas för en stor del av regelverken inom den svenska finanssektorn, besitter en betydelsefull roll, likaså enskilda bankmedarbetares beslutsfattande inom de svenska storbankerna.Syftet med studien är att förstå hur och varför det kan existera ett gap mellan FATF:s grundläggande rekommendationer och några svenska bankers agerande i reglering av penningtvätt genom att observera enskilda bankmedarbetares beslutsfattande inom de svenska storbankerna.Beslutsteorier ligger till grund för att förstå hur psykologiska kognitioner kan påverka en individs beslutsfattande. Vår föreställning har även varit den, att enskilda bankmedarbetare inom de svenska storbankerna kan fatta beslut och utföra handlingar i relation till organisationsförhållande så som styr- och kontrollsystem, komplexa organisationsmiljöer, informationssystem, individuell kompetens samt selektion, urval och värderingar, som råder inom banken.Sett till vår teoretiska referensram, empiriska insamling och analys har vi konstaterat att de olika organisationsförhållandena kan vara bidragande faktorer till varför penningtvätt inom svenska storbanker kan uppstå. Banktjänstemän fattar inte enbart oönskade beslut på grund av brister i organisationsförhållandena, utan även på grund av olika kompetensnivåer som innebär att vissa medarbetare med högre kompetens erhåller ett bredare handlingsutrymme. Under studiens gång har vi fått en indikation på att kundkännedom och kundrelation kan vara en kritisk faktor till uppkomsten av penningtvätt, då det existerar osäkerhet i enskilda bankmedarbetares bedömning av kunders trovärdighet / Money laundering and terrorist financing is an international issue that is constantly threatening the world economy and the financial system. This meaning, that FATF's fundamental recommendations, as a basis for a large part of the regulations, within the Swedish financial sector have a significant role in the counter of money laundering as well as the decision-making of bankers in the Swedish major banks.The purpose of the study is to understand how and why there exists a gap between the Financial Action Task Force's fundamental recommendations and the behavior of a number of Swedish banks in the regulation of money laundering by observing bankers'decisionmaking.By applying an abductive approach, decision theories lay the foundation for understanding which psychological cognitions can affect a bankers decision making. Our idea has also been that individuals in the Swedish major banks can make decisions in relation to which organizational relationships such as control system, complex work environments, informations systems, selections and values exist within the bank.Referring to our theoretical reference framework, empirical collection and analysis, we have found that the different organizational relationships can be contributing factors to why money laundering within Swedish major banks can arise. Bankers not only take unwanted decisions because of the shortcomings in the organizational relationships, but also because the employees have different levels of competence and thus have wider scope for action. During the study, we have received an indication that customer relationships and how well bankers knows the customer, can be a critical factor to the emergence of money laundering.

The interaction among firms in the supply chain is necessary for business process execution and relationship success. One phenomenon of great significance to buyer-supplier relationships is opportunism. Opportunism is defined as behavior that is self-interest seeking with guile. It is manifested in behaviors such as stealing, cheating, dishonesty, and withholding information. Opportunism negatively impacts relational exchange tenets such as trust, commitment, cooperation, and satisfaction. Furthermore, perceptions of opportunism negatively affect firm performance. In lieu of the known negative effects of opportunistic behavior on buyer-supplier relationships, why do agents continue to engage in opportunistic tactics with their exchange partners? A comprehensive examination is necessary in order to understand why sourcing professionals engage in acts of opportunism. Understanding why opportunism occurs will reveal how to deter it, and this remains a gap in the literature. Based on theories in economics, marketing channels, supply chain management, decision science, and psychology, a comprehensive model tested a set of factors hypothesized to drive the use of opportunistic tactics. Factors include buyer-supplier relationship-specific factors, environmental factors, individual personality-related factors, and situational factors. Data was collected via internet survey of sourcing professionals from private industry and government agencies. Common to many studies of ethics, respondents made choices based on two hypothetical vignettes. Two logistic regression models were used to test the hypotheses. Factors found to affect buyer opportunism included buyer power, corporate ethical values, pressure to perform, leadership opportunism, business sector, honesty/integrity, and subjective expected utility. This research contributes to theory by combining several disparate theories to best explain opportunism. A comprehensive evaluation should determine which theory explains the most variance in decision making. The study contributes to practice by identifying those important factors contributing to a sourcing professional's decision to use opportunistic tactics. The ability to manage these factors should improve the probability of relationship success. Additionally, the identification of these factors should help leaders to make more accurate estimates of transaction costs - key knowledge required to make an informed make or buy governance decision.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, Graduate School of Business Administration, 2014. / The business literature has long heralded franchising as an economically efficient business strategy for sustainable job, wealth and value creation, economic transformation and small business development. However, opportunism, being the tendency of the parties involved in the franchise relationship to act in their self-interest at each other’s expense resulting in misaligned incentives, may undermine the long-term efficacy of the franchising system. Such opportunism may be enacted at different times by either the franchisor or the franchisee. For the above reasons, this thesis focuses on the role of opportunism, a key aspect of Transactions Cost Economics theory, within the franchising system. Following an extensive review of the franchising, opportunism and related literatures, the thesis goes on to theorising and investigating a two-dimensional conceptualisation of opportunism, namely ‘opportunistic orientations’ and ‘opportunistic actions’. Secondly, the thesis theorises and investigates various key antecedents and consequences of opportunistic orientations (OO) and opportunistic actions (OA) from the perspectives of both franchisors and franchisees. Ultimately, this thesis proposes an integrated model combining structural, contextual and strategic factors as antecedents affecting OO which, in turn, leads to OA. The model further proposes that OA impact the growth, competitiveness and survival of franchise systems. In order to test this model, this thesis used a mixed methods strategy to undertake empirical fieldwork conducted separately among x franchisors and franchisees. The franchisor study was based on questionnaire data gathered from 111 purposefully sampled franchisors analysed principally through multivariate correlational techniques including structural equation modelling and canonical correlations. The franchisee study involved gathering semi-structured interview data from a purposeful sample of 30 Johannesburg-based franchisees, analysed through content analysis. To a large extent, while the results of the empirical fieldwork supports the proposed model as outlined above, the results of the franchisor study produced some unexpected outcomes. These relate mainly to the findings that structural and strategic factors directly affected the competitiveness of franchise systems and that contextual and strategic factors also directly affected the growth and survival of franchise systems and not through the intervening variables, that is, OO and OA. These findings suggest that structural, contextual and strategic factors may create entrepreneurial orientations (EO) and not OO within franchise systems. Nevertheless, this thesis makes several important and unique contributions to the study of franchising in South Africa, possibly with broader applications elsewhere, which include the following: - extending the opportunism construct by conceptualising the OO notion which helps to increase understanding of the manifestation of opportunism as a central problem within franchise relationships; xi - examining the antecedents and consequences of OO and OA in the same model to test the opportunism-performance hypothesis probably as the first study to do so among franchisors and franchisees in general and particularly in this country and continent; - applying TCE and RET theories to explain OO and OA and strategies to curb or minimise it within franchise relationships; and - incorporating some aspects of the country’s marriage laws into the franchise relationship to provide for secured tenure among franchisees by expunging the expiry clauses from franchise contractsWithin the context of Relational Exchange Theory, this thesis mainly and uniquely suggests the use of: - psychological contracts between franchisors and franchisees to help align the incentives of these parties largely through mutually agreed norms of acceptable behaviour, role expectations and objectives; - independent and statutory bodies such as the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA), law societies and medical or nursing councils as dispute resolution mechanisms to help mediate or resolve franchising disputes fairly, quickly and cheaply; and xii - “evergreen” franchise contracts which make no provision for expiry clauses to attenuate opportunism among franchisees through secured tenure. On the whole, this thesis recommends the use of the above interventions as governance mechanisms to help improve franchisor-franchisee relationships and the reputation of franchising in South Africa by aligning the incentives of the parties and creating an environment in which franchise relationships can flourish. Finally, the thesis also implores future researchers to investigate the impact of existing legislation such as the Consumer Protection Act and the measures suggested above on franchising in this country and the rest of the continent; and the relationship between EO and the growth, competitiveness and survival of franchise systems.

Svenska börsnoterade företag anpassade år 2005 sin redovisning enligt International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Detta medförde att företagens goodwilltillgångar skulle nedskrivningsprövas. Nedskrivningsprövningen kan göras genom att diskontera framtida kassaflöden med en diskonteringsränta. Denna studie undersöker om företag opportunistiskt justerar diskonteringsräntan vid nedskrivningsprövning av goodwill. Om detta varierar ökar över tid, om företagens börsvärde påverkar och om de tillfällena då företag sänker sin diskonteringsränta jämfört med föregående år ökar det opportunistiska beteendet. Detta undersöks genom att jämföra företags redovisade diskonteringsräntor med teoretiskt uppskattade diskonteringsräntor estimerade genom Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM). Denna studie undersöker de företag noterade på Stockholmsbörsens Large-, Mid- och Small Cap börslistor mellan år 2006 till år 2009. Studiens resultat visar att opportunistiska justeringar av diskonteringsräntor vid nedskrivningsprövning av goodwill förekommer och fluktuerar över tid. Däremot går det inte att se några tydliga indikationer på att företagets börsvärde påverkar graden av opportunistiskt beteende eller om andelen företag som opportunistisk justerar sin diskonteringsränta ökar när företagen sänker sin diskonteringsränta jämfört med föregående år.

Sedan 2005 är det genom en förordning av Europeiska unionen bestämt att svenska börsnoterade företag ska nedskrivningstesta sin goodwill. Diskonteringsräntan som appliceras vid denna nedskrivningsprövning är av väsentlig betydelse. Vi replikerar delvis en studie av Carlin & Finch (2009) som beräknade teoretiska diskonteringsräntor enligt Capital asset pricing model (CAPM) och jämförde med de diskonteringsräntor som börsnoterade företag i Australien använt i sin redovisning. Carlin & Finch (2009) ansåg att avvikelserna däremellan kunde förklaras genom utövanden som är diskretionära och att opportunistiskt beteende förekommer när företag sätter sin diskonteringsränta. Vi använder ett underlag bestående av Sveriges största börsnoterade företag, de som är noterade på Large Cap- och Mid Cap-listan på Stockholmsbörsen, och studerar hur andelen som redovisat en enligt CAPM avvikande diskonteringsränta förändrats sedan de nya redovisningsreglerna trädde i kraft år 2005 till år 2009. Våra resultat visar att andelen företag som tillämpar en diskonteringsränta som enligt CAPM borde vara högre har stigit sedan 2005 vilket kan vara ett tecken på opportunistiskt agerande.

Pastaraisiais dešimtmečiais daugelio valstybių vykdomų viešojo valdymo reformų viena iš krypčių ir buvo decentralizuotų, vienos funkcijos įstaigų kūrimas – agentūrų. Tai organizacinio pobūdžio reforma, kuomet yra steigiamos specializuotos vykdomosios agentūros viešojo administravimo sistemose. Lietuvoje tokio pobūdžio institucijų nėra yra tik panašios į jas viešosios ir biudžetinės įstaigos. Todėl šio darbo tikslas yra ištirti Lietuvos specializuotų institucijų kaip agentūrų veiklos problematiką Pirmajame šio darbo skyriuje pristatoma ir nagrinėjama agentūrų kūrimo koncepcija, užsakovo (principalo) – vykdytojo teorija bei jos pritaikymas ir įtaka specializuotų vykdomųjų agentūrų steigimo iniciatyvoms. Pristatomos ir analizuojamos pagrindinės problemos kylančios šios teorijos rėmuose. Taip pat analizuojamos agentūrų kūrimo iniciatyvos atskirose viešojo administravimo sistemose, gvildenami tokie klausimai: kodėl yra steigiamos agentūros vienose ar kitose sistemose?; kas tai sąlygoja?; ko siekiama ir panašiai?. Be visų šių klausimų atskleidžiamos ir specializuotų agentūrų kūrimo prielaidos naujosios viešosios vadybos koncepcijoje. Antrasis darbo skyrius skirtas atskirų šalių patirčių analizei. Analizuojamos reformos ir jų įgyvendinimas Vakarų Europos šalyse, Olandijos ir Jungtinių Amerikos Valstijų federalinėse sistemose bei kaimyninėje Latvijoje. Atskleidžiami ir analizuojami pagrindiniai agentūrų steigimo motyvai, paskatos, problemos atskirose šalyse. Siekiant atskleisti jų... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / In the last couple of decates in many countries the main aspect of public administration reforms was creation of specialized institutions – agencies. There are only common organizations in Lithuania such as public and budgetary institutions. So the main goal of this project is to explore problems of Lithuanian agencies. The first part of this work introduces and analyzes the conception of the agencies’ creation, principal - agent theory, its application and influence on the initiatives for the establishment of specializes executive agencies. The main problems within the frames of this theory are introduced and analyzed. Also the initiatives of the agencies’ creation in separate public administration systems are analyzed, and the following questions are asked: why the agencies are established in certain systems? What causes this? What is the goal? Etc. Besides these questions, the presumptions for the creation of specialized agencies are revealed in the conception of new public management. The second part of the work is meant for the analysis of the experience of different countries. The reforms and their implementation in the Western European countries, federal systems of Holland and the United States of America and agencification in the Republic of Latvia are analyzed. The main motives for the establishment of agencies are revealed and analyzed, as well as reasons and problems in various countries. In order to reveal their variety, quite a big range of the countries was... [to full text]

I investigate the relation between CEO equity compensation and employee layoffs. In particular, this study seeks to examine CEO stock-based incentives and managerial opportunism behavior for the sample of CEOs of firms announcing layoffs during 1997-2006. I investigate two issues. First, I measure the extent of CEO stock selling in the year of the announcement of employee layoffs. CEOs may want to avoid negative press coverage regarding their compensation because it may send a negative signal to the market if they reduce the companies' work force and may choose to not sell equity, which is consistent with efficient contracting theory. I find different responses by layoff CEOs toward stock option awards and toward option exercise. Layoff CEOs sell substantial shares after receiving stock options to diversify their portfolio risk, especially during a boom economy and with layoffs constituting a greater percentage of a firm's workforce. They, however, retain substantial amount of shares acquired on the exercise of options to avoid intensive negative press coverage on both layoff and option exercises. Second, I examine CEOs' opportunistic behavior to maximize their stock-based compensation value by controlling the timing of stock option awards surrounding layoff announcements, or by controlling the timing of layoff news announcements. My finding provides evidence that CEOs of firms announcing employee layoffs are more likely to receive stock options in advance of value-enhancing layoff announcements but subsequent to value-destroying layoff announcements. However, my results show that these stock prices start declining after news of CEO stock option awards are disclosed in proxy statements (which are published approximately three months after the end of company fiscal years). This may indicate that the stock market responds negatively to this "your pain, my gain" leadership style, as that corporate executives of firms announcing layoffs may have no ethic of shared sacrifice. Overall, I find that negative press coverage may motivate CEOs of firms announcing layoffs to substantially change their portfolio or ownership. Public scrutiny also limits CEOs' ability of conducting opportunistic behavior regarding manipulation of the timing of option awards and layoff announcements.

Financial advisors has a responsibility to cater customers needs, but are at the same time controlled through corporate governance to benefit their employer, which has caused troubles regarding opportunism. MiFID II intends to regulate opportunism through more documentation and regulations on commission. The purpose of this study is therefore to investigate how governance within financial institutes is affected by regulations implemented through MiFID II. Since there is a lack of theories and research within the field, the study uses an explorative approach. To achieve the purpose of the study a qualitative research method was used, where data was collected through interviews with eight respondents from different financial institutes. Furthermore, how corporate governance was affected by MiFID II was examined by using theories on knowledge asymmetry, agent theory, management control systems and reward systems. The results of the study indicate that the opportunistic management has declined due to the removal of monetary rewards and salestargets, which entails more focus on customer satisfaction. The results also show that regulations on commission has caused changes in payment methods, which isn’t necessarily a positive aspect for customers. The conclusions of the study show that the financial institutes has replaced management by objectives with action controls containing less liberty and more standardization, which reduces opportunism. However, the increasing knowledge asymmetry is problematic since it prevents opportunistic management from being completely removed. Another vital consequence of the increased documentation through MiFID II is fewer counselling meetings, which causes several institutes to shift focus towards wealthier customers. / Finansiella rådgivare ansvarar för att tillgodose konsumenters intressen samtidigt som de utsätts för styrning som ska gagna arbetsgivarens intressen, vilket inneburit problematik kring opportunism. Regelverket MiFID II avser att reglera opportunismen genom informations- och dokumentationskrav samt provisionsregleringar. Syftet med studien är således att undersöka hur finansinstitutens bolagsstyrning påverkas av regleringarna. Eftersom att det i nuläget saknas tillräckligt utförlig forskning och teorier kring forskningsområdet är studien av explorativ art. För att uppnå studiens syfte har en kvalitativ forskningsmetod använts där empirin samlats in genom intervjuer med åtta respondenter från olika finansinstitut. MiFID II:s påverkan på bolagsstyrning har undersökts med stöd från teori om kunskapsasymmetri, agentteori, styrsystem samt belöningssystem. Studiens resultat visar att opportunistisk styrning minskat genom borttagandet av monetära belöningssystem och att försäljningsmål alltmer reducerats inom finansinstituten, vilket medfört större fokus på kundnöjdhet. Resultatet visar även att provisionsregleringarna inneburit uppkomst av andra betalningsmetoder för en mer opartisk rådgivning, vilket inte nödvändigtvis är positivt för konsumenterna. Slutsatserna från studien är att MiFID II inneburit ett skifte från målstyrda finansinstitut till alltmer handlingsstyrda organisationer med minskad frihet och högre grad av standardisering i rådgivningen, med mindre möjlighet till opportunism som konsekvens. Den ökande kunskapsasymmetrin är dock problematisk då den förhindrar möjligheterna till att opportunistisk styrning upphör. En vital konsekvens av MiFID II:s ökade dokumentationskrav är även ett minskat antal möjliga rådgivningstillfällen, vilket av lönsamhetsskäl resulterat i en positionering mot mer förmögna kunder för flertalet finansinstitut.