In high performance electronic systems, with increasing chip speed and larger number of processors, the system performance is being limited by off-chip metal interconnects. In such systems, polymer optical waveguides are being considered to replace electrical interconnects because of their high capacity for bandwidth and less constraints on interconnect length. The optical loss in the polymer optical waveguides is the key criterion used to evaluate their performance, and is significantly affected by thermal curing and aging. The evolution of degree-of-cure is determined from differential scanning calorimetry and compared to optical absorption from spectroscopy. Optical loss due to scattering mechanisms is related to local density fluctuations, which is studied using dielectric analysis. Based on the optical loss trends in uncladded and cladded waveguides, the underlying mechanisms for the optical loss variations are proposed and a cure process schedule to realize the lowest optical loss is recommended. Process-induced thermal stresses can also affect the polymer waveguide by introducing stress birefringence. The stress-optical coefficients of the siloxane polymer are extracted and employed in a numerical modeling method to determine the stress-induced birefringence in an optical waveguide system. The thermal-aging dependent optical loss is determined for waveguide samples at several different accelerated temperature conditions. To get the field-use conditions, the temperature distribution in the vicinity of the embedded laser and the polymer waveguide is determined. Using such thermal experimental data, the analytical reliability models were employed to relate the optical loss with time, and provide a practical way of determining whether the optical waveguides would perform within the optical loss budget during field-use conditions.

The ever-increasing need for higher bandwidth and density is one of the motivations for extensive research on planar optoelectronic structures on printed circuit board (PCB) substrates. Among these applications, optical interconnects have received considerable attention in the last decade. Several optical interconnect techniques, such as free space, guided wave, board level and fiber array interconnects, have been introduced for system level applications. In all planar optoelectronic systems, optical waveguides are crucial elements that facilitate signal routing. Low propagation loss, high reliability and manufacturability are among the requirements of polymer optical waveguides and polymer passive devices on PCB substrates for practical applications. Besides fabrication requirements, reliable characterization tools are needed to accurately and nondestructively measure important guiding properties, such as waveguide propagation loss. In three-dimensional (3D) fully embedded board-level optical interconnects, another key challenge is to realize efficient optical coupling between in-plane waveguides and out-of-plane laser/detector devices. Driven by these motivations, the research presented in this thesis focuses on some fundamental studies of optical interconnects for PCB substrates, e.g., developing low-loss optical polymer waveguides with integrated efficient out-of-plane couplers for optical interconnects on printed circuit board substrates, as well as the demonstration of a novel free-space optical interconnect system by using a volume holographic thin film. Firstly, the theoretical and experimental investigations on the limitations of using mercury i-line ultraviolet (UV) proximity photolithography have been carried out, and the metallization techniques for fine copper line formation are explored. Then, a new type of low-loss polymer waveguides (i.e., capped waveguide) is demonstrated by using contact photolithography with considerable performance improvement over the conventional waveguides. To characterize the propagation properties of planar optical waveguides, a reliable, nondestructive, and real-time technique is presented based on accurately imaging the scattered light from the waveguide using a sensitive charge coupled device (CCD) camera that has a built-in integration functionality. To provide surface normal light coupling between waveguides and optoelectronic devices for optical interconnects, a simple method is presented here to integrate 45° total internal reflection micro-mirrors with polymer optical waveguides by an improved tilted beam photolithography (with the aid of de-ionized water) on PCBs. A new technique is developed for a thin layer of metal coating on the micro-mirrors to achieve higher reflection and coupling efficiency (i.e., above 90%). The combination of the capped waveguide technique and the improved tilted UV exposure technique along with a hard reusable metal mask for metal deposition eliminates the usage of the traditional lift-off process, greatly simplifies the process, and reduces fabrication cost without sacrificing the coating quality. For the study of free-space optical interconnects, a simple system is presented by employing a single thin-film polymeric volume holographic element. One 2-spherical-beam hologram is used to link each point light source with the corresponding photodetector. An 8-channel free-space optical interconnect system with high link efficiency is demonstrated by using a single volume holographic element where 8 holograms are recorded.

Inter-chip input-output (I/O) communication bandwidth demand, which rapidly scaled with integrated circuit scaling, has leveraged equalization techniques to operate reliably on band-limited channels at additional power and area complexity. High-bandwidth inter-chip optical interconnect architectures have the potential to address this increasing I/O bandwidth. Considering future tera-scale systems, power dissipation of the high-speed I/O link becomes a significant concern. This work presents a design flow for the power optimization and comparison of high-speed electrical and optical links at a given data rate and channel type in 90 nm and 45 nm CMOS technologies. The electrical I/O design framework combines statistical link analysis techniques, which are used to determine the link margins at a given bit-error rate (BER), with circuit power estimates based on normalized transistor parameters extracted with a constant current density methodology to predict the power-optimum equalization architecture, circuit style, and transmit swing at a given data rate and process node for three different channels. The transmitter output swing is scaled to operate the link at optimal power efficiency. Under consideration for optical links are a near-term architecture consisting of discrete vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSEL) with p-i-n photodetectors (PD) and three long-term integrated photonic architectures that use waveguide metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors and either electro-absorption modulator (EAM), ring resonator modulator (RRM), or Mach-Zehnder modulator (MZM) sources. The normalized transistor parameters are applied to jointly optimize the transmitter and receiver circuitry to minimize total optical link power dissipation for a specified data rate and process technology at a given BER. Analysis results shows that low loss channel characteristics and minimal circuit complexity, together with scaling of transmitter output swing, allows electrical links to achieve excellent power efficiency at high data rates. While the high-loss channel is primarily limited by severe frequency dependent losses to 12 Gb/s, the critical timing path of the first tap of the decision feedback equalizer (DFE) limits the operation of low-loss channels above 20 Gb/s. Among the optical links, the VCSEL-based link is limited by its bandwidth and maximum power levels to a data rate of 24 Gb/s whereas EAM and RRM are both attractive integrated photonic technologies capable of scaling data rates past 30 Gb/s achieving excellent power efficiency in the 45 nm node and are primarily limited by coupling and device insertion losses. While MZM offers robust operation due to its wide optical bandwidth, significant improvements in power efficiency must be achieved to become applicable for high density applications.

Novel polymer-enhanced photodefined through-silicon via (TSV) and passive technologies have been demonstrated for silicon interposers to obtain compact heterogeneous computing and mixed-signal systems. These technologies include: (1) Polymer-clad TSVs with thick (~20 µm) liners to help reduce TSV losses and stress, and obtain optical TSVs in parallel for interposer-to-interposer long-distance communication; (2) Polymer-embedded vias with copper vias embedded in polymer wells to significantly reduce the TSV losses; (3) Coaxial vias in polymer wells to reduce the TSV losses with controlled impedance; (4) Antennas over polymer wells to attain a high radiation efficiency; and (5) High-Q inductors over polymer wells. Cleanroom fabrication and characterization of the technologies have been demonstrated. For the fabricated polymer-clad TSVs, resistance and synchrotron x-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements have been demonstrated. High-frequency measurements up to 170 GHz and time-domain measurements up to 10 Gbps have been demonstrated for the fabricated polymer-embedded vias. For the fabricated coaxial vias and inductors, high-frequency measurements up to 50 GHz have been demonstrated. Lastly, for the fabricated antennas, measurements in the W-band have been demonstrated.

Οι απαιτήσεις των δικτύων διασύνδεσης, στα υπολογιστικά συστήματα υψηλής απόδοσης, αυξάνονται με αλματώδη ρυθμό τόσο σε χωρητικότητα, όσο και σε ρυθμούς σηματοδοσίας που πρέπει να εξυπηρετηθούν. Αυτή η αύξηση των ρυθμών σηματοδοσίας επιβάλλει την αντικατάσταση των ηλεκτρικών διακοπτών που χρησιμοποιούνται μέχρι τώρα, από τους οπτικούς. Η τεχνολογία των οπτικών ινών παρουσιάζει σημαντικά πλεονεκτήματα για τέτοιες εφαρμογές διότι επιτρέπει τη μετάδοση σε μεγαλύτερες αποστάσεις, παρέχει ευρυζωνικότητα, είναι πιο ανθεκτική στην ηλεκτρομαγνητική παρεμβολή, και μπορεί να είναι πιο συμφέρουσα ενεργειακά, κάτι που εξαρτάται από το ρυθμό σηματοδοσίας και το μήκος της ζεύξης. Σε αυτή την κατεύθυνση, αυτή η διδακτορική διατριβή αποσκοπεί στο σχεδιασμό και την επίδειξη οικονομικά συμφέροντων, υψηλής διεκπαιρεωτικής ικανότητας, οπτικών δικτύων διασύνδεσης ικρυωμάτων για τα exascale (10^18 Flops) υπολογιστικά συστήματα υψηλής απόδοσης και τα κέντρα δεδομένων. Ειδικότερα, μελετάται μία πρωτότυπη, οικονομικά βελτιστοποιημένη, αρχιτεκτονική ενός αμιγώς οπτικού δικτύου διασύνδεσης η οποία χρησιμοποιεί οπτικούς ημιαγωγικούς ενισχυτές για να επιτελέσει τη μεταγωγή. Αυτή η προτεινόμενη, οικονομικότερη εκδοχή του υπο μελέτη N×N αμιγώς οπτικού, ραβδεπαφικού διακόπτη, χρησιμοποιεί ένα μειωμένο αριθμό απαιτούμενων πυλών ON/OFF. Στην παρούσα διατριβή η προτεινόμενη αρχιτεκτονική συγκρίνεται με την αρχικά προταθείσα και αποδεικνύεται η εξίσου καλή λειτουργία της με την πρώτη, τόσο θεωρητικά όσο και πειραματικά. Επιπλέον, για την αύξηση της χωρητικότητας και παράλληλα για την καταπολέμηση των φαινομένων μετάδοσης στο δίκτυο διασύνδεσης (ιδιαίτερα της αυτοδιαμόρφωσης και ετεροδιαμόρφωσης της απολαβής (SGM και XGM), της αυτοδιαμόρφωσης και ετεροδιαμόρφωσης της φάσης (SPM και XPM), και της εξάρτησης της απολαβής από την πόλωση (PDG)), μελετώνται, εκτός από την τεχνική διαμόρφωσης πλάτους με άμεσης φώραση (IM/DD), διάφορες προηγμένες τεχνικές διαμόρφωσης όπως η διαφορική διαμόρφωση φάσης (DPSK) με άμεση φώραση, η διαμόρφωση με ορθογώνια πολυπλεξία συχνότητας (OFDM) με άμεση φώραση, καθώς και μελλοντικά υποψήφιες τεχνικές διαμόρφωσης, για τέτοια είδους δίκτυα, όπως η τετραδική διαμόρφωση φάσης με πολυπλεξία της πόλωσης (PDM-QPSK), και η δεκαεξαδική διαμόρφωση φάσης και πλάτους (16QAM) χωρίς (SP) και με (PDM) πολυπλεξία της πόλωσης, με σύμφωνη φώραση. Τέλος, ως δεύτερη ερευνητική δραστηριότητα, μελετώνται ζεύξεις σημείου-προς-σημείο, που βασίζονται στη χρήση πομπών κάθετης κοιλότητας επιφανειακής εκπομπής (VCSELs) και πολύτροπες (MMF) ή μονότροπες (SMF) ίνες, σε συνδυασμό με συμβατικές τεχνικές διαμόρφωσης, όπως η ΙΜ/DD, και προηγμένες, όπως η διαμόρφωση πλάτους τεσσάρων επιπέδων (4-PAM), και η OFDM διαμόρφωση. Η χρήση των παραπάνω τεχνολογιών επιτρέπει την αύξηση της χωρητικότητας και τη μείωση του κόστους στα τρέχοντα συστήματα οπτικής διασύνδεσης. / Data rates are continuing to increase for box-to-box, rack-to-rack, board-to-board, and chip-to-chip interconnects for terabit switches and routers, multiprocessor computers and high-end servers. The increase in individual line rates and bandwidth drives the need to replace copper interconnects with optical interconnects. Fiber optics are advantageous for these applications because they allow for longer link lengths, increased bandwidth, smaller cables and connectors, less susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, and potentially lower power dissipation, depending on the data rate and link length. Towards this direction, this thesis aims to design and demonstrate low-cost, low-latency, high throughput, rack-to-rack optical interconnect architectures for exascale (i.e., performing 10^18 floating point operations per second) high-performance computing (HPC) systems and data centers. In particular, a novel, cost-effective, optical interconnect architecture for ultrafast optical switching, based on semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs), is studied. The proposed design of a fast N×N all-optical, wavelength-space crossbar switch for optical interconnects uses a minimum number of ON/OFF gates. This thesis compares and proves the superiority of the proposed architecture with respect to its originally-proposed counterpart, both theoretically and experimentally. Additionally, in order to increase the capacity and to minimize the impact of transmission effects (especially self-gain modulation (SGM), cross-gain modulation (XGM), self-phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase modulation (XPM), and polarization dependent gain (PDG)), we investigate the performance of conventional binary intensity modulation (IM), in conjunction with direct detection, as well as of advanced, more resilient, spectrally-efficient modulation formats (e.g., Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK), Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), Polarization Division Multiplexed Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (PDM-QPSK), Single (SP)- and PDM- 16-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16QAM) in conjunction with coherent detection). Finally, as a seperate research activity, we study the performance of point-to-point links based on vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) and single- or multi- mode fibers, in conjuction with IM/DD, four-level Pulse Amplitude Modulation (4-PAM), and OFDM, to enable state-of-the-art, high-capacity, low-cost optical interconnects.

Existing optical networks are driven by dynamic user and application demands but operate statically at their maximum performance. Thus, optical links do not offer much adaptability and are not very energy-effcient. In this paper a novel approach of implementing performance and power adaptivity from system down to optical device, electrical circuit and transistor level is proposed. Depending on the actual data load, the number of activated link paths and individual device parameters like bandwidth, clock rate, modulation format and gain are adapted to enable lowering the components supply power. This enables exible energy-efficient optical transmission links which pave the way for massive reductions of CO2 emission and operating costs in data center and high performance computing applications. Within the FP7 research project Adaptive Data and Power Aware Transceivers for Optical Communications (ADDAPT) dynamic high-speed energy-efficent transceiver subsystems are developed for short-range optical interconnects taking up new adaptive technologies and methods. The research of eight partners from industry, research and education spanning seven European countries includes the investigation of several adaptive control types and algorithms, the development of a full transceiver system, the design and fabrication of optical components and integrated circuits as well as the development of high-speed, low-loss packaging solutions. This paper describes and discusses the idea of ADDAPT and provides an overview about the latest research results in this field.

Optical connectivity has the potential to outperform copper-based TSVs in terms of bandwidth at the cost of more complexity due to the required electro-optical and opto-electrical conversion. The continuously increasing demand for higher bandwidth pushes the breakeven point for a profitable operation to shorter distances. To integrate an optical communication network in a 3D-chip-stack optical through-silicon vertical VIAs (TSV) are required. While the necessary effort for the electrical/optical and vice versa conversion makes it hard to envision an on-chip optical interconnect, a chip-to-chip optical link appears practicable. In general, the interposer offers the potential advantage to realize electro-optical transceivers on affordable expense by specific, but not necessarily CMOS technology. We investigated the realization and characterization of optical interconnects as a polymer based waveguide in high aspect ratio (HAR) TSVs proved on waferlevel. To guide the optical field inside a TSV as optical-waveguide or fiber, its core has to have a higher refractive index than the surrounding material. Comparing different material / technology options it turned out that thermal grown silicon dioxide (SiO2) is a perfect candidate for the cladding (nSiO2 = 1.4525 at 850 nm). In combination with SiO2 as the adjacent polymer layer, the negative resist SU-8 is very well suited as waveguide material (nSU-8 = 1.56) for the core. Here, we present the fabrication of an optical polymer based multimode waveguide in TSVs proved on waferlevel using SU-8 as core and SiO2 as cladding. The process resulted in a defect-free filling of waveguide TSVs with SU-8 core and SiO2 cladding up to aspect ratio (AR) 20:1 and losses less than 3 dB.

This paper describes simulation, technology- and process development for the manufacturing of single mode polymeric waveguides by photolithography. Simulations for single mode operation in O- and C-band are carried out. Waveguides are directly patterned with UV-photolithography using Ormocere®-material. Fiber to waveguide coupling and near field are characterized.

This paper demonstrates an approach for passive alignment and assembly of link components for board-level very-short range optical interconnects. This interchip optical link is based on planar polymeric multimode waveguides and glassbased electro-optical transceivers. The main aim of the work is the investigation of assembly processes of link components in order to fulfill the tolerance requirements using passive alignment. The optical characterization in regard to the optical coupling between link components will define the tolerances for the alignment process. This optical analysis is based on measurements of spatial coupling characteristics. The influence of assembly tolerances on the coupling efficiency is investigated. Flip-chip assembly of electro-optical devices on the glass interposer and of the glass interposer on optical overlay is presented to prove the implementation of the concept.

This paper discusses the technology development for integration of parallel optical interconnects on board-level, including the active and passive optical components as well as the electrical integrated circuitry. The inter-chip link is based on planar polymeric optical multimode waveguides with integrated out-of-plane coupling optics and optical transceiver subassemblies based on glass interposer. Integration of polymeric waveguides on flexible substrates will be shown since the realization of an overlay optical substrate enhances the yield and testability of the final hybrid electrooptical printed circuit board (EOPCB). Realized on-board waveguides feature low insertion loss (minimum attenuation coefficient of below 0.1 dB/cm). For short planar waveguides (Lwaveguide = 9 cm) error free transmission (BER < 10-12) up to 30 Gbit/s was achieved. The development of glass interposer passive optical coupling structures for VCSEL-based short-distance links will be described.