Collaborating in engineering design is taking place increasingly across technical disciplines, departments and organisations. When collaborating, participants confront issues about how to share understanding and foster aligned project expectations. A review of literature suggests there is limited research about the process of collaborating in engineering design and how collaborating is influenced by context. Collaborating is distinguished as a relational concept (involving at least two parties) that is a social process occurring in both pairs and a group. Studies currently focus on group effectiveness, one or two processes (e.g. communication), and either a group (e.g. a collaboration) or pairwise relations (e.g. inter-organisational relationships). A framework of relevant concepts was adopted from literature on collaboration practice to organise empirical data. Collaborating in engineering design is explored in sixty semi-structured interviews focusing on participants’ interaction and shared understanding (as pairs and groups) in their activities. This is complemented by observations of group meetings and project documentation. Empirical data is presented from four industry-based case studies classified by design type (adaptive or original) and design setting (intra or inter-organisational). Cross-case comparisons draw attention to an increase in ambiguity and uncertainty in combining tasks, roles, expertise and participants in original design type or inter-organisational cases. Findings from cross-case analysis highlight seven new conceptual categories. Four features (Opportunity, Dependence, Results, Adjustments) are used to present a dilemma that participants face which is more acute where organisational and knowledge boundaries are crossed. Three mechanisms (Familiarising, Associating, Regulating) describe how pairwise relations influence a group and individuals in collaborating. These show that through pairwise relations individuals recognise, establish and maintain expectations of how to collaborate in engineering design. This reveals that pairwise relations both help and hinder individuals and a group in how they adjust to foster aligned expectations of collaborating.

In the context of sustainable supply networks, this research analyzes the evolution of governance mechanisms and network structure, including the interplay between network conditions, context factors, positional power and managerial actions. The study reports on a longitudinal empirical research on a multi-stakeholder sustainable sourcing network established by Nespresso, Nestlé’s specialty coffee subsidiary. The research analyzes both dyadic and multi-actor network dynamics and proposes a framework to study network evolution. Social network analysis techniques are also used to measure evolution of the network's structure and complexity as well as positional power opportunities. The research shows that in the initial start-up phase, in a context marked by uncertainty, pre-existing commercial and personal relationships were favoured in the choice of partners. These pre-existing relationships were also influential in defining the initial network structure and supporting an initial phase of exploration. Governance mechanisms initially relied mostly on informal mechanisms, while formal mechanisms were incorporated over time to enable the supply chain network to grow and to provide clarity to all actors. As the sustainability programme network expanded in size and complexity, Nespresso, the lead organization, also acted on the network's structure by introducing regional offices, thus increasing network centralization and reducing complexity. Power derived by actors occupying central or brokerage positions in multiplex networks also influenced power relationships in the sustainability network by moderating or expanding the power opportunities available to central actors. The research has implications for both the Inter-organizational Relationship and the Social Network Theory literatures. In contrast with prior literature, the research proposes that in conditions of uncertainty, the use of informal governance mechanisms can facilitate a search and experimentation process. Formalization of governance mechanisms can be used, not as a repair mechanism, but rather as an enabler for further growth and efficiency. The research also extends the concept of network complexity and proposes that network managers can reduce this complexity by introducing or managing nodes that in turn contribute to the re-centralization of relationships towards specific nodes. Lastly, the research has implications for managers and proposes mapping of existing commercial and personal relationships as a potentially valuable tool in the creation and management of networks, adapting coordination mechanisms to the objectives of the relationship and actively managing the network's structure as a mechanism to enable network growth and efficiency.

In the context of sustainable supply networks, this research analyzes the evolution of governance mechanisms and network structure, including the interplay between network conditions, context factors, positional power and managerial actions. The study reports on a longitudinal empirical research on a multi-stakeholder sustainable sourcing network established by Nespresso, Nestlé’s specialty coffee subsidiary. The research analyzes both dyadic and multi-actor network dynamics and proposes a framework to study network evolution. Social network analysis techniques are also used to measure evolution of the network’s structure and complexity as well as positional power opportunities. The research shows that in the initial start-up phase, in a context marked by uncertainty, pre-existing commercial and personal relationships were favoured in the choice of partners. These pre-existing relationships were also influential in defining the initial network structure and supporting an initial phase of exploration. Governance mechanisms initially relied mostly on informal mechanisms, while formal mechanisms were incorporated over time to enable the supply chain network to grow and to provide clarity to all actors. As the sustainability programme network expanded in size and complexity, Nespresso, the lead organization, also acted on the network’s structure by introducing regional offices, thus increasing network centralization and reducing complexity. Power derived by actors occupying central or brokerage positions in multiplex networks also influenced power relationships in the sustainability network by moderating or expanding the power opportunities available to central actors. The research has implications for both the Inter-organizational Relationship and the Social Network Theory literatures. In contrast with prior literature, the research proposes that in conditions of uncertainty, the use of informal governance mechanisms can facilitate a search and experimentation process. Formalization of governance mechanisms can be used, not as a repair mechanism, but rather as an enabler for further growth and efficiency. The research also extends the concept of network complexity and proposes that network managers can reduce this complexity by introducing or managing nodes that in turn contribute to the re-centralization of relationships towards specific nodes. Lastly, the research has implications for managers and proposes mapping of existing commercial and personal relationships as a potentially valuable tool in the creation and management of networks, adapting coordination mechanisms to the objectives of the relationship and actively managing the network’s structure as a mechanism to enable network growth and efficiency.

As empresas do setor têxtil, a fim de demonstrar sua preocupação com as questões ambientais, têm buscado matérias-primas produzidas em sistemas de produção menos agressivos ao meio ambiente, como forma de diferenciar seus produtos diante do consumidor. Nesse contexto, o algodão naturalmente colorido se mostra como uma opção que está atraindo a atenção das indústrias e de consumidores preocupados com os danos causados ao meio ambiente, especialmente porque essa qualidade de algodão traz alternativas tanto à fase de produção, quanto à de beneficiamento (alvejamento e tingimento dos tecidos). No Brasil, o algodão naturalmente colorido tem a sua principal produção no Estado da Paraíba, onde está localizado o Arranjo Produtivo Local (APL) das Confecções e Artefatos de Algodão Colorido deste Estado. Assim, a cadeia produtiva do algodão naturalmente colorido tem sido considerada importante quanto aos aspectos ambientais, econômicos e sociais da sustentabilidade no Estado, tornando-se de interesse à sociedade o desenvolvimento positivo desse arranjo produtivo. Nesse sentido, o presente estudo tem por objetivo analisar os relacionamentos organizacionais para formação de valor do referido APL. Tal análise foi realizada em três momentos: primeiro teve a intenção de delinear a dinâmica do APL e conhecer os seus atores; a seguir, analisar os relacionamentos com foco na confiança e no comprometimento; e, finalmente, analisar os relacionamentos para a formação de valor. Para atingir os objetivos propostos foram coletados dados no Estado da Paraíba, nos municípios de Campina Grande, Juarez Távora, São Bento e João Pessoa mediante entrevistas, aplicação de questionário e observação. Os dados coletados e analisados, utilizando a metodologia Análise de Conteúdo, indicaram que nas empresas de maior projeção os constructos confiança e comprometimento aparecem com mais força do que entre os artesãos que não trabalham com confecção de roupas; no que diz respeito aos relacionamentos para a formação de valor, foi possível constatar que o APL possui importantes grupos que se formam com a finalidade de agregação de valor. Observou-se a formação de grupos em quase todos os elos da cadeia: beneficiamento, certificação, aquisição de matéria-prima, produção, comercialização e exportação. Além disso, foi possível concluir que esses grupos são formados a partir das diferentes percepções acerca do mercado do algodão naturalmente colorido. / Textile companies, in order to demonstrate their concern about environmental issues, have been looking for raw materials produced in production systems less aggressive to the environment, as a way to differentiate their products from the consume. In this context, naturally colored cotton is an option that is attracting the attention of industries and consumers concerned about the damage caused to the environment, especially since this quality of cotton brings alternatives to both the production and processing stages (bleaching and dyeing of tissues). In Brazil, naturally colored cotton has its main production in the State of Paraíba, where the “Arranjo Produtivo Local (APL) das Confecções e Artefatos de Algodão Colorido” of this State is located. Thus, the production chain of naturally colored cotton has been considered important in terms of the environmental, economic and social aspects of sustainability in the State, making it of interest to society the positive development of this productive arrangement. In this sense, the present study aims to analyze the organizational relationships for the formation of value of said APL. This analysis was carried out in three moments: first it was intended to delineate the dynamics of the APL and to know its actors; and then analyze relationships that focus on trust and commitment; and finally, analyze the relationships for the formation of value. To reach the proposed objectives, data were collected in the State of Paraíba, in the municipalities of Campina Grande, Juarez Távora, São Bento and João Pessoa through interviews, questionnaire application and observation. The data collected and analyzed, using the Content Analysis methodology, indicated that in the companies with the highest projection, the trust and commitment constructs appear with more force than among the artisans who do not work with clothing; in relation to the relationships for the formation of value, it was possible to verify that the APL has important groups that are formed for the purpose of aggregation of value. Group formation was observed in almost every link in the chain: processing, certification, raw material acquisition, production, marketing and export. In addition, it was possible to conclude that these groups are formed from different perceptions about the naturally colored cotton market.

This dissertation is about the in/stability over time of a contract-based inter-organizational relationship (IOR) which existed mostly under conditions of government monopsony (MG). The MG consisted of the institutional arrangements between the NHS and Higher Education sectors in England for the provision of education for the NHS non-medical professional workforce. The IOR was between the NHS education buyer (the ‘GM’) and Middlesex University (MU). An agent-centred historical institutionalism was used as the overall approach in the inquiry. The main components of the approach were resource dependence theory, concepts of historical dependence, and events in the IOR and its institutional and organizational environments. A multi-dimensional concept of IOR in/stability from the standpoints of the GM and MU which was grounded in the practices of the IOR was constructed. The inquiry traced the origins and subsequent development of the MG and the in/stability of the IOR over an 18 year period, 1995 - 2013. The main findings of the inquiry were: (1) The IOR originated in, and continued to exist mostly under conditions of MG (2) The IOR became less stable over time from the standpoint of MU; reductions in IOR stability occurred in dimensions of risk relating to the future performance of the IOR (3) Instability and threatened instability in the IOR were brought about mostly by the exercise of power by the GM and by the power dependence responses of MU. The thesis developed in the dissertation is that instability and threatened instability in the IOR were due mostly to a power imbalance in the IOR, in favour of the GM, between the GM and MU. The source of that power imbalance was a combination of: • The resource dependency of MU on the IOR • The conditions of MG and bilateral monopoly under which the IOR existed. The dissertation is concluded with a critique of MG as a technique for public sector management. Recommendations are made for new NHS-HE inter-sector and IOR arrangements to be established which take account of power imbalances and relations of mutual dependence between stakeholders. Recommendations for further research are also made.

Researchers studying the alignment of business resources usually focus on business cases that inherently have a going-concern interaction built on long-term relationships at the firm level (e.g., Barney, 1991) dyadic level (e.g., Eisenhardt & Martin, 2000) or the broader network level (e.g., Dyer, 1996). Resource alignment is usually flexible in terms of the timeline for identifying and aligning resources and resource engagement. While contractual limitations can be applied to resource alignment, resource engagement holds a notion of persistent value adding relationship. However, there are multitudes of contexts where relationships are bounded by the limited life of a project and by the way where resources must be rapidly aligned and managed. Examples exist in sectors as diverse as construction, filmmaking, and oil exploration. The study examined theories and empirical studies of resource alignment ranging from resource-based views (e.g., Wernerfelt, 1984) to more complex network views of social organizational interactions (e.g., Gulati et al., 2000). The majority of these literatures treat the development of business relationships and the acquisition of resources as a phenomenon that occurs over an extended period. Time-bound transactions challenge these theoretical perspectives built around the longevity of inter-organizational relations. Thus, the key strategic management problem this research addresses is how resources and capabilities can be rapidly aligned and managed in a time-bound network to achieve sustainable competitive advantages (SCA) at the network level. The fieldwork was conducted on more than 20 construction projects in the United Arab Emirates. Using secondary source data, I mapped the projects??? networks and interviewed 45 industry experts about the resources and capabilities their firms bring to the network, and how quickly they can be aligned to achieve the objectives of the project. The interviews were conducted over 11 months between 2011 and 2012 and amounted to more than 20 hours of audio and hundreds of notes including network sketches. I also investigated the transfer of resources and capabilities that may help network members to increase their competitive advantage when bidding on future projects. The benefits of long-term relationships are evident in any business; however, firms in the project-based construction industry often cannot reap those benefits. This study built upon theories of network-based resource alignment in the extreme situation of time-bound projects. The two-phase qualitative research approach relied on intensive interviews with key decision makers. Template analysis was used as the primary method of data analysis. This research???s primary finding is that there is no evidence of the concept of sustainable competitive advantage at the network level, while it is evident at the firm level. Other findings confirm that the events of full replication and non-replication of networks after project completion do not exist nor do decision makers favour them. While these findings imply the lack of attention to the benefits of contributing to a network, the more apparent scenario is replication of parts of a network, which is a result of two factors: 1) capabilities developed at firm level, which in return develop resources, and other capabilities, 2) movement of resources across network entities. The results shed light on decision-making techniques for efficient management of resources in time-bound business transactions such as construction and other projects. However, they may also generalize to dynamic business situations such as the entry of a firm into a new market or the entrepreneurial start-up of a new company in which resources must also be quickly aligned.

Over recent years, the study of industrial districts, and inter-organizational relations has become a major theme of interest in network research. Theories characterized by an increased inter-relatedness between heterogeneous actors and knowledge fields point to a new form of inter-organizational relationship development. This is basicly based on the idea of creating trust between firms to increase their chances of success and to keep pace with the development of all relevant technologies. In this thesis, we present some data from a research project we have conducted in OSTIM industrial district, Ankara, Turkey. First, we present the theoretical perspectives which appear relevant to such investigation, and which aims at developing a better a network model of the inter-organizational relations of district firms, as well as trust, informal contracts and centrality issues, particularly as regards technological innovation and technology transfer of firms, respectively. Moreover, the evidence presented in this thesis is unequivocal in noting that long term inter-organizational relations and trust may be a necessary and a sufficent condition for a small and medium sized enterprise (SME) to take its place in the center of a complex web of inter-organizational relations as seen in an industrial district.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-11T13:57:03Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Anexos.pdf: 407339 bytes, checksum: 26d62f42c5432495bbd5a745b824ad29 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-05-03 / Para facilitar as vendas e os empreendimentos de diversos setores do comércio varejista da cidade de Manaus, capital do Amazonas, criaram-se as chamadas lojas on-line , que se caracterizavam por serem apenas pontos de vendas virtuais. Com o avanço das mídias sociais, configuradas pelos usos dos suportes digitais, como, por exemplo, o Orkut e o Twitter, as empresas do comércio varejista de Manaus, em especial, do ramo de eletroeletrônicos, passaram a utilizá-los para interagir com seus públicos. Esta pesquisa investigou se as mídias sociais foram utilizadas como uma nova alternativa para estreitar relacionamentos entre essas organizações e seus públicos ou apenas como meio de transmissão de informações, se seu uso foi relacionado aos objetivos estratégicos dessas organizações e elucidou as contribuições das Relações Públicas na gestão das mídias sociais quando aplicadas ao relacionamento entre a organização e seu público. Quanto à forma de raciocínio, o método empregado na presente pesquisa consistiu no hipotético-dedutivo. A fase inicial de investigação do problema foi desenvolvida a partir da realização de pesquisa bibliográfica e documental, tendo em vista a necessidade de buscar a devida fundamentação teórica do assunto em discussão. Considerando que a opção por um determinado tipo de pesquisa não inviabiliza a utilização das demais, pois, na prática, os diversos tipos de pesquisa são complementares, a metodologia empregada neste estudo foi a pesquisa quanti-qualitativa.

This is a study of inter-organizational relations, especially of control relations, applied to Swedish state enterprise.The growing interdependence between different parts of society as well as the dynamic environment of organizations bring forward a need for new patterns of interaction. Organizations of very dissimilar types have to cooperate in new areas. The state enterprises have an external environment that exhibit both political and economic characteristics. The control relation, to the owner, may involve both types.The study consists of three parts. Part one present an initial theoretical framework, used in an empirical study (part two). This shows the need for a further development. A revised and enlarged framework is presented in part three. In the initial framework the concept of control, within a systems approach, was the focus of investigation. The approach was traditional and pointed to the importance of structures and of characteristics of the decision process. Control of two levels was discussed — organizational control and control of specific situation. The model suggested was mainly developed for description of control of state enterprises.The empirical study was conducted as an interview study in nine state enterprises. The interviews were of a semi-structured type and the purpose was to gain new insights as to the conditions of control of organizations. The enterprises were selected according to mission, three types were identified: strictly political tasks, strictly economic tasks and a mixture of tasks. The findings were that organizational control differed according to task so that political task gives a more strict control: The differences in control of ongoing avtivity was less pronounced. The most striking finding was the relevance of expectations of control. The empirical study led to demands for a more actor-oriented approach.This was the starting point for the revised and enlarged framework. A review of studies of relations in the systems approach and within a more actor-oriented approach was made. The role of the actor in the organization is discussed. The importance of structural conditions and of process in control is also analyzed. This review and analysis forms the basis for a somewhat different approach to relations. A concept of complexity is developed. This concept involve the total variation in a situation. Complexity is a main factor in perceptions of uncertainty < Coping with uncertainty gives power, which is the prerequisite of control.These concepts are used to form a game approach to control. Control is considered as the result of a game of power. Two types of games are presented — for organizations as a whole and for situations of a deviant character. In both types actors and processes are of prime interest. / digitalisering@umu

Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons à la façon dont différentes organisations sont impliquées dans des relations inter-organisationnelles (RIO), en nous centrant sur le secteur culturel. Dans le cadre de méta-organisations cette recherche a pour but de mieux comprendre le déroulement des processus internes des groupes inter-organisationnels par l’analyse des relations entre les individus au sein de ces GIO. Nous souhaitons améliorer leurs chances de succès. Pour analyser les relations entre les individus au sein de ces GIO, nous introduisons le concept d’identification inter-organisationnelle et celui de la compétence collective. Nous considérons que ces deux concepts nous permettent de comprendre la réussite, la stagnation ou l’échec des méta-organisations. Nous allons montrer à travers cette recherche doctorale qu’il est nécessaire de développer une compétence collective, autrement dit, la compétence du collectif de travail inter-organisationnel sur le long terme, pour assurer le succès de la RIO, et que l’identification inter-organisationnelle joue un rôle déterminant dans ce processus. Ainsi, grâce à une étude de cas comparative à visée explicative, dans le secteur culturel, cette thèse propose un modèle qui permet de comprendre le lien entre l’émergence d’une identification et une compétence collective et de mettre en évidence des moyens de management qui permettent d’améliorer les relations inter-organisationnelles. / This thesis looks at the way different organizations are involved in inter-organizational relations (IOR), with a focus on the cultural sector. In the context of meta-organizations, the aim of this research is to better understand how the internal processes in inter-organizational groups take place by analysing the relationships between individuals within those groups. In so doing, we hope to improve their chances of success. To analyse these relationships, we introduce the concept of inter-organizational identification and that of collective competence. We believe that these two concepts can provide us with a better understanding of the success, stagnation or failure of meta-organizations. This doctoral research will demonstrate that it is necessary to develop collective competence, i.e. competence at the level of the inter-organizational working group in the long term, in order to ensure the success of IOR. It will also reveal that inter-organizational identification plays a crucial role in this process. Based on an explanatory comparative case study in the cultural sector, a model is proposed with which to understand the link between the emergence of identification and collective competence and to highlight the management approaches that can be used to improve inter-organizational relations.